Abstract
Identification of the genetic factors that underlie stimulant responsiveness in animal models has significant implications for better understanding and treating stimulant addiction in humans. F2 progeny derived from parental rat strains F344/NHsd and LEW/NHsd, which differ in responses to drugs of abuse, were used in quantitative trait locus (QTL) analyses to identify genomic regions associated with amphetamine-induced locomotion (AIL) and G-protein levels in the nucleus accumbens (NAc). The most robust QTLs were observed on chromosome 3 (maximal log ratio statistic score (LRSmax)=21.3) for AIL and on chromosome 2 (LRSmax=22.0) for Gαi3. A ‘suggestive’ QTL (LRSmax=12.5) was observed for AIL in a region of chromosome 2 that overlaps with the Gαi3 QTL. Novelty-induced locomotion (NIL) showed different QTL patterns from AIL, with the most robust QTL on chromosome 13 (LRSmax=12.2). Specific unique and overlapping genomic regions influence AIL, NIL, and inhibitory G-protein levels in the NAc. These findings suggest that common genetic mechanisms influence certain biochemical and behavioral aspects of stimulant responsiveness.
Similar content being viewed by others
Log in or create a free account to read this content
Gain free access to this article, as well as selected content from this journal and more on nature.com
or
References
Agatsuma S, Lee M, Zhu H, Chen K, Shih JC, Seif I et al (2006). Monoamine oxidase A knockout mice exhibit impaired nicotine preference but normal responses to novel stimuli. Hum Mol Genet 15: 2721–2731.
Albertson DN, Pruetz B, Schmidt CJ, Kuhn DM, Kapatos G, Bannon MJ (2004). Gene expression profile of the nucleus accumbens of human cocaine abusers: evidence for dysregulation of myelin. J Neurochem 88: 1211–1219.
Alexander RC, Wright R, Freed W (1996). Quantitative trait loci contributing to phencyclidine-induced and amphetamine-induced locomotor behavior in inbred rats. Neuropsychopharmacology 15: 484–490.
Almasy L, Porjesz B, Blangero J, Goate A, Edenberg HJ, Chorlian DB et al (2001). Genetics of event-related brain potentials in response to a semantic priming paradigm in families with a history of alcoholism. Am J Hum Genet 68: 128–135.
Alttoa A, Eller M, Herm L, Rinken A, Harr J (2007). Amphetamine-induced locomotion, behavioral sensitization to amphetamine, and striatal D2 receptor function in rats with high or low spontaneous exploratory activity: differences in the role of locus coeruleus. Brain Res 1131: 138–148.
Andrews CM, Kung HF, Lucki I (2005). The 5-HT1A receptor modulates the effects of cocaine on extracellular serotonin and dopamine levels in the nucleus accumbens. Eur J Pharmacol 508: 123–130.
Barr AM, Panenka WJ, MacEwan GW, Thornton AE, Lang DJ, Honer WG et al (2006). The need for speed: an update on methamphetamine addiction. J Psychiatry Neurosci 331: 301–313.
Barrot M, Wallace DL, Bolanos CA, Graham DL, Perrotti LI, Neve RL et al (2005). Regulation of anxiety and initiation of sexual behavior by CREB in the nucleus accumbens. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102: 8357–8362.
Benavides DR, Bibb JA (2004). Role of Cdk5 in drug abuse and plasticity. Ann NY Acad Sci 1025: 335–344.
Bibb JA, Chen J, Taylor JR, Svenningsson P, Nishi A, Snyder GL et al (2001). Effects of chronic exposure to cocaine are regulated by the neuronal protein Cdk5. Nature 410: 376–380.
Bice P, Foroud T, Bo R, Castelluccio P, Lumeng L, Li T-K et al (1998). Genomic screen for QTLs underlying alcohol consumption in the P and NP rat lines. Mamm Genome 9: 949–955.
Biederman J, Spencer T, Wilens T (2004). Evidence-based pharmacotherapy for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 7: 293–300.
Blackburn JR, Szumlinski KK (1997). Ibogaine effects on sweet preference and amphetamine induced locomotion: implications for drug addiction. Behav Brain Res 89: 99–106.
Boyle AEL, Gill K (2001). Sensitivity of AXB/BXA recombinant inbred lines of mice to the locomotor activating effects of cocaine: a quantitative trait loci analysis. Pharmacogenetics 11: 254–264.
Brodkin ES, Carlezon Jr WA, Haile CN, Kosten TA, Heninger GR, Nestler EJ (1998). Genetic analysis of behavioral, neuroendocrine, and biochemical parameters in inbred rodents: initial studies in Lewis and Fischer 344 rats and in A/J and C57BL/6J mice. Brain Res 805: 55–68.
Brodkin ES, Goforth SA, Keene AH, Fossella JA, Silver LM (2002). Identification of quantitative trait loci that affect aggressive behavior in mice. J Neurosci 22: 1165–1170.
Carey RJ, DePalma G, Damianopoulos E, Shanahan A, Muller CP, Huston JP (2005). Evidence that the 5-HT1A autoreceptor is an important pharmacological target for the modulation of cocaine behavioral stimulant effects. Brain Res 1034: 162–171.
Carlezon Jr WA, Duman RS, Nestler EJ (2005). The many faces of CREB. Trends Neurosci 28: 436–445.
Chausmer A, Ettenberg A (1999). Intraaccumbens raclopride attenuates amphetamine-induced locomotion, but fails to prevent the response-reinstating properties of food reinforcement. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 62: 299–305.
Chen PC, Chen JC (2005). Enhanced Cdk5 activity and p35 translocation in the ventral striatum of acute and chronic methamphetamine-treated rat. Neuropsychopharmacology 30: 538–549.
Chergui K, Svenningsson P, Greengard P (2004). Cyclin-dependent kinase 5 regulates dopaminergic and glutamatergic transmission in the striatum. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 101: 2191–2196.
Choi KH, Whisler K, Graham DL, Self DW (2006). Antisense-induced reduction in nucleus accumbens cyclic AMP response element binding protein attenuates cocaine reinforcement. Neuroscience 137: 373–383.
Conversi D, Bonito-Oliva A, Orsini C, Cabib S (2006). Habituation to the test cage influences amphetamine-induced locomotion and Fos expression and increases FosB/DeltaFosB-like immunoreactivity in mice. Neuroscience 141: 597–605.
Corda MG, Piras G, Lecca D, Fernandez-Teruel A, Driscoll P, Giorgi O (2005). The psychogenetically selected Roman rat lines differ in the susceptibility to develop amphetamine sensitization. Behav Brain Res 157: 147–156.
Darvasi A, Soller M (1997). A simple method to calculate resolving power and confidence interval of QTL map location. Behav Genet 27: 125–132.
Dellu-Hagedorn F (2005). Spontaneous individual differences in cognitive performances of young adult rats predict locomotor response to amphetamine. Neurobiol Learn Memory 83: 43–47.
Dick DM, Aliev F, Bierut L, Goate A, Rice J, Hinrichs A et al (2006). Linkage analyses of IQ in the collaborative study on the genetics of alcoholism (COGA) sample. Behav Genet 36: 77–86.
Downing C, Rodd-Henricks KK, Flaherty L, Dudek BC (2003). Genetic analysis of the psychomotor stimulant effect of ethanol. Genes Brain Behav 2: 140–151.
Ehlers CL, Wilhelmsen KC (2005). Genomic scan for alcohol craving in Mission Indians. Psychiatr Genet 15: 71–75.
Elman I, Lukas SE (2005). Effects of cortisol and cocaine on plasma prolactin and growth hormone levels in cocaine-dependent volunteers. Addict Behav 30: 859–864.
Ferraro TN, Golden GT, Smith GG, Martin JF, Schwebel CL, Doyle GA et al (2005). Confirmation of a major QTL influencing oral morphine intake in C57 and DBA mice using reciprocal congenic strains. Neuropsychopharmacology 30: 742–746.
Fust G, Arason GJ, Kramer J, Szalai C, Duba J, Yang Y et al (2004). Genetic basis of tobacco smoking: strong association of a specific major histocompatibility complex haplotype on chromosome 6 with smoking behavior. Int Immunol 16: 1507–1514.
Gelernter J, Liu X, Hesselbrock V, Page GP, Goddard A, Zhang H (2004). Results of a genomewide linkage scan: support for chromosomes 9 and 11 loci increasing risk for cigarette smoking. Am J Med Genet B 129: 94–101.
Gelernter J, Panhuysen C, Weiss R, Brady KT, Hesselbrock V, Rounsaville B et al (2005). Genomewide linkage scan for cocaine dependence and related traits: significant linkages for a cocaine-related trait and cocaine-induced paranoia. Am J Med Genet 136: 45–52.
Gelernter J, Panhuysen C, Wilcox MM, Hesselbrock V, Rounsaville B, Poling J et al (2006). Genomewide linkage scan for opioid dependence and related traits. Am J Hum Genet 78: 759–769.
Green TA, Alibhai IN, Hommel JD, DiLeone RJ, Kumar A, Theobold DE et al (2006). Induction of inducible cAMP early repressor expression in nucleus accumbens by stress or amphetamine increases behavioral responses to emotional stimuli. J Neurosci 26: 8235–8242.
Grimm JW, Lu L, Hayashi T, Hope BT, Su TP, Shaham Y (2003). Time-dependent increases in brain-derived neurotrophic factor protein levels within the mesolimbic dopamine system after withdrawal from cocaine: implications for incubation of cocaine craving. J Neurosci 23: 742–747.
Grisel JE, Belknap JK, O'Toole LA, Helms ML, Wenger CD, Crabbe JC (1997). Quantitative trait loci affecting methamphetamine responses in BXD recombinant inbred mouse strains. J Neurosci 17: 745–754.
Hahn H, Nitzki F, Schorban T, Hemmerlein B, Threadgill D, Rosemann M (2004). Genetic mapping of a Ptch1-associated rhabdomyosarcoma susceptibility locus on mouse chromosome 2. Genomics 84: 853–858.
Hall FS, Drgonova J, Goeb M, Uhl GR (2003). Reduced behavioral effects of cocaine in heterozygous brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) knockout mice. Neuropsychopharmacology 28: 1485–1490.
Hendrickson HP, Milesi-Halle A, Laurenzana EM, Owens SM (2004). Development of a liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometric method for the determination of methamphetamine and amphetamine using small volumes of rat serum. J Chromatogr B 806: 81–87.
Hiroi N, Agatsuma S (2005). Genetic susceptibility to substance dependence. Mol Psychiatry 10: 336–344.
Horger BA, Iyasere CA, Berhow MT, Messer CJ, Nestler EJ, Taylor JR (1999). Enhancement of locomotor activity and conditioned reward to cocaine by brain-derived neurotrophic factor. J Neurosci 19: 4110–4122.
Hu XT, Ford K, White F (2005). Repeated cocaine administration decreases calcineurin (PP2B) but enhances DARPP-32 modulation of sodium currents in rat nucleus accumbens neurons. Neuropsychopharmacology 30: 916–926.
Hunter R, Jones D, Vicentic A, Hue G, Rye D, Kuhar MJ (2006). Regulation of CART mRNA in the rat nucleus accumbens via D3 dopamine receptors. Neuropharmacology 50: 858–864.
Ikemoto S, Witkin BM (2003). Locomotor inhibition induced by procaine injections into the nucleus accumbens core, but not the medial ventral striatum: implication for cocaine-induced locomotion. Synapse 47: 117–122.
Janowsky A, Mah C, Johnson RA, Cunningham CL, Phillips TJ, Crabbe JC et al (2001). Mapping genes that regulate density of dopamine transporters and correlated behaviors in recombinant inbred mice. J Pharmacol Expt Ther 298: 634–643.
Jaworski JN, Jones D (2006). The role of CART in the reward/reinforcing properties of psychostimulants. Peptides 27: 1993–2004.
Jaworski JN, Kozel MA, Philpot KB, Kuhar MJ (2003). Intra-accumbal injection of CART (cocaine-amphetamine regulated transcript) peptide reduces cocaine-induced locomotor activity. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 307: 1038–1044.
Jones BC, Tarantino LM, Rodriquez LA, Reed CL, McClearn GE, Plomin R et al (1999). Quantitative-trait loci analysis of cocaine-related behaviours and neurochemistry. Pharmacogenetics 9: 607–617.
Jones DC, Kuhar MJ (2006). Cocaine–amphetamine-regulated transcript expression in the rat nucleus accumbens is regulated by adenylyl cyclase and the cyclic adenosine 5′-monophosphate/protein kinase a second messenger system. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 317: 454–461.
Jones LC, McCarthy KA, Beard JL, Keen CL, Jones BC (2006). Quantitative genetic analysis of brain copper and zinc in BXD recombinant inbred mice. Nutr Neurosci 9: 81–92.
Kansy JW, Daubner SC, Nishi A, Sotogaku N, Lloyd MD, Ngyuen C et al (2004). Identification of tyrosine hydroxylase as a physiological substrate for Cdk5. J Neurochem 91: 374–384.
Kim JH, Vezina P (1998). Metabotropic glutamate receptors in the rat nucleus accumbens contribute to amphetamine-induced locomotion. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 284: 317–322.
Kliethermes CL, Crabbe JC (2006). Pharmacological and genetic influences on hole-board behaviors in mice. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 85: 57–65.
Knyshevski I, Ricci LA, McCann TE, Melloni RH (2005). Serotonin type-1A receptors modulate adolescent, cocaine-induced offensive aggression in hamsters. Physiol Behav 85: 167–176.
Kosten T, Ambrosio E (2002). HPA axis function and drug addictive behaviors: insights from studies with Lewis and Fischer 344 inbred rats. Psychoneuroendocrinology 27: 35–69.
Kumar A, Choi KH, Renthal W, Tsankova NM, Theobold DE, Truong HT et al (2005). Chromatin remodeling is a key mechanism underlying cocaine-induced plasticity in striatum. Neuron 48: 303–314.
Lahmame A, Grigoriadas DE, De Souza EB, Armario A (1997). Brain corticotropin-releasing factor immunoreactivity and receptors in five inbred rat strains: relationship to forced swimming behavior. Brain Res 750: 285–292.
Lander E, Kruglyak L (1995). Genetic dissection of complex traits: guidelines for interpreting and reporting linkage results. Nat Genet 11: 241–247.
Leonard S, Breese C, Adams C, Benhammou K, Gault J, Stevens K et al (2000). Smoking and schizophrenia: abnormal nicotinic receptor expression. Eur J Pharmacol 393: 237–242.
Lipska B, Weinberger DR (1996). Genetic variation in the vulnerability to the behavioral effects of neonatal hippocampal damage in rats. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92: 8906–8910.
Long JC, Knowler WC, Hanson RL, Robin RW, Urbanek M, Moore E et al (1998). Evidence for genetic linkage to alcohol depencence on chromosomes 4 and 11 from an autosome-wide scan in an American Indian population. Am J Med Genet 81: 216–221.
Luna-Munguia H, Manuel-Apolinar L, Rocha L, Meneses A (2005). 5-HT1A receptor expression during memory formation. Psychopharmacology 181: 309–318.
Manly K, Olson JM (1999). Overview of QTL mapping software and introduction to Map Manager QT. Mamm Genome 10: 327–334.
Marley RJ, Arros DM, Henricks KK, Marley ME, Miner LL (1998). Sensitivity to cocaine and amphetamine among mice selectively bred for differential cocaine sensitivity. Psychopharmacology 140: 42–51.
McBrearty BA, Clark LD, Zhang X-M, Blankenhorn EP, Heber-Katz E (1998). Genetic analysis of a mammalian wound-healing trait. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95: 11792–11797.
Millan MJ, Brocco M, Gobert A, Joly F, Bervoets K, Rivet J et al (1999). Contrasting mechanisms of action and sensitivity to antipsychotics of phencyclidine vs amphetamine: importance of nucleus accumbens 5-HT2A sites for PCP-induced locomotion in the rat. Eur J Neurosci 11: 4419–4432.
Moisan MP, Courvoisier H, Bihoreau MT, Gauguier D, Hendley ED, Lathrop M et al (1996). A major quantitative trait locus influences hyperactivity in the WKHA rat. Nat Genet 14: 471–473.
Nestler EJ, Barrot M, Self DW (2001). Delta FosB: a sustained molecular switch for addiction. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98: 11042–11046.
Nestler EJ, Berhow MT, Brodkin ES (1996). Molecular mechanisms of drug addiction: adaptations in signal transduction pathways. Mol Psychiatry 1: 190–199.
Nestler EJ, Carlezon Jr WA (2006). The mesolimbic dopamine reward circuit in depression. Biol Psychiatry 59: 1151–1159.
Nurnberger Jr JI, Foroud T, Flury L, Su J, Meyer ET, Hu K et al (2001). Evidence for a locus on chromosome 1 that influences vulnerability to alcoholism and affective disorder. Am J Psychiatry 158: 718–724.
Palmer AA, Verbitsky M, Suresh R, Kamens HM, Reed CL, Li N et al (2005). Gene expression differences in mice divergently selected for methamphetamine sensitivity. Mamm Genome 16: 291–305.
Patkar AA, Mannelli P, Hill KP, Peindl K, Pae CU, Lee TH (2006a). Relationship of prolactin response to meta-chlorophenylpiperazine with severity of drug use in cocaine dependence. Hum Psychopharmacol 21: 367–375.
Patkar AA, Mannelli P, Peindl K, Hill KP, Gopalakrishnan R, Beretini WH (2006b). Relationship of disinhibition and aggression to blunted prolactin response to meta-chlorophenylpiperazine in cocaine-dependent patients. Psychopharmacology 185: 123–132.
Phillips TJ, Huson MG, McKinnon CS (1998). Localization of genes mediating acute and sensitized locomotor responses to cocaine in BXD/Ty recombinant inbred mice. J Neurosci 18: 3023–3034.
Philpot K, Smith Y (2006). CART peptide and the mesolimbic dopamine system. Peptides 27: 1987–1992.
Potenza MN, Brodkin ES, Joe B, Luo X, Remmers EF, Wilder RL et al (2004). Genomic regions controlling corticosterone levels in rats. Biol Psychiatry 55: 634–641.
Pu L, Liu QS, Poo MM (2006). BDNF-dependent synaptic sensitization in midbrain dopamine neurons after cocaine withdrawal. Nat Neurosci 9: 605–607.
Pucadyil TJ, Kalipatnapu S, Chattopadhyay A (2005). The serotonin1A receptor: a representative member of the serotonin receptor family. Cell Mol Neurobiol 25: 1721–1753.
Radel M, Vallejo RL, Iwata N, Aragon R, Long JC, Virkunen M et al (2005). Haplotype-based localization of an alcohol dependence gene to the 5q34 {gamma}-aminobutyric acid type A gene cluster. Arch Gen Psychiatry 62: 47–55.
Rajakumar N, Leung LS, Ma J, Rajakumar B, Rushlow W (2005). Altered neurotrophin receptor function in the developing prefrontal cortex leads to adult-onset dopaminergic hyperresponsivity and impaired prepulse inhibition of acoustic startle. Biol Psychiatry 55: 797–803.
Ramos A, Moisan MP, Chaouloff F, Mormede C, Mormede P (1999). Identification of female-specific QTLs affecting an emotionality-related behavior in rats. Mol Psychiatry 4: 453–462.
Remmers EF, Longman RE, Du Y, O'Hare A, Cannon GW, Griffiths MM et al (1996). A genome scan localizes five non-MHC loci controlling collagen-induced arthritis in rats. Nat Genet 14: 82–85.
Saccone NL, Goode EL, Bergen AW (2003). Genetic analysis workshop 13: summary of analyses of alcohol and cigarette use phenotypes in the Framingham Heart Study. Genet Epidemiol 25: s90–s97.
Self DW, Choi KH, Simmons D, Walker JR, Smagula CS (2004). Extinction training regulates neuroadaptive responses to withdrawal from chronic cocaine self-administration. Learning Memory 11: 648–657.
Sofuoglu M, Kosten TR (2006). Emerging pharmacological strategies in the fight against cocaine addiction. Expert Opin Emerg Drugs 11: 91–98.
Song J, Koller DL, Foroud T, Carr K, Zhau J, Rice J et al (2003). Association of GABA(A) receptors and alcohol dependence and the effects of genetic imprinting. Am J Med Genet 117: 39–45.
Stohr T, Schulte Wermeling D, Weiner I, Feldon J (1998). Rat strain differences in open-field behavior and the locomotor stimulating and rewarding effects of amphetamine. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 59: 813–818.
Svenningsson P, Nairn AC, Greengard P (2005). DARPP-32 mediates the actions of multiple drugs of abuse. AAPS J 7: E353–E360.
Takahashi S, Ohshima T, Cho A, Sreenath T, Iadarola MJ, Pant HC et al (2005). Increased activity of cyclin-dependent kinase 5 leads to attenuation of cocaine-mediated dopamine signaling. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 102: 1737–1742.
Tsuang M, Lyons MJ, Meyer JM, Doyle T, Eisen SA, Goldberg J et al (1998). Co-occurrence of abuse of different drugs in men. Arch Gen Psychiatry 55: 967–972.
Wang H, Ng K, Hayes D, Gao X, Forster G, Blaha C et al (2004). Decreased amphetamine-induced locomotion and improved latent inhibition in mice mutant for the M5 muscarinic receptor gene found in the human 15q schizophrenia region. Neuropsychopharmacology 29: 2126–2139.
Zachariou V, Sgambato-Faure V, Sasaki T, Svenningsson P, Fienberg AA, Nairn AC et al (2006). Phosphorylation of DARPP-32 at threonine-34 is required for cocaine action. Neuropsychopharmacology 31: 555–562.
Zhang H, Ozbay F, Lappalainen J, Kranzler HR, van Dyck CH, Charney DS et al (2006). Brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) genetic variants and Alzheimer's disease, affective disorders, posttraumatic stress disorder, schizophrenia and substance dependence. Am J Med Genet B 141B: 387–393.
Zhu H, Lee MS, Agatsuma S, Hiroi N (2007). Pleiotropic impact of constitutive fosB inactivation on nicotine-induced behavioral alterations and stress-related traits in mice. Hum Mol Genet 16: 820–836.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by a Young Investigator Award from the National Alliance for Research in Schizophrenia and Depression (NARSAD), a Drug Abuse Research Scholar Program in Psychiatry Award from the American Psychiatric Association and the National Institute on Drug Abuse (K12-DA00366), the Clinician Scientist Training Program (K12-DA00167), the US Department of Veterans Affairs (the VA Connecticut–Massachusetts Mental Illness Research, Education and Clinical Center (MIRECC), VA Research Enhancement Award program (REAP) and the Veterans Affairs Neuroscience and Traumatic Brain Injuries Post-doctoral Fellowship), NIDA R01 DA12849, NIAAA R01 AA11330, NIDA P01 DA08227, NIMH P50 MH66172, Burroughs Wellcome Fund Career Award in the Biomedical Sciences, and NIMH KO8-MH068586. We thank Xingguang Luo, Eric Londin, Michael Bernabeo, Yong Huang, and Anne Marie Lacobelle for technical assistance and Elaine F Remmers and Ronald L Wilder for advice on QTL methodologies.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST/DISCLOSURE
The authors report that they have no conflicts of interest over the past 3 years to report as related to the subject of the report. Dr Potenza has received financial support or compensation for the following: Dr Potenza consults for and is an advisor to Boehringer Ingelheim; has consulted for and has financial interests in Somaxon; has received research support from the National Institutes of Health, Veteran's Administration, Mohegan Sun, and Forest Laboratories, Ortho-McNeil and Oy-Control/Biotie Pharmaceuticals; has participated in surveys, mailings, or telephone consultations related to drug addiction, impulse control disorders, or other health topics; has consulted for law offices and the federal public defender's office in issues related to impulse control disorders; has performed grant reviews for the National Institutes of Health and other agencies; has given academic lectures in grand rounds, CME events, and other clinical or scientific venues; has generated books or book chapters for publishers of mental health texts; and provides clinical care in the Connecticut Department of Mental Health and Addiction Services Problem Gambling Services Program. Dr Brodkin has received financial support or compensation for the following: Dr Brodkin has performed grant reviews for the US Civilian Research and Development Foundation, the New Jersey Governor's Council on Autism, and the US Department of Defense Autism Spectrum Disorder Research Program (grant review organized by Constella Group Inc.); is a member of the Gerson Lehrman Group Healthcare Council (although not provided any services or received any compensation from Gerson Lehrman Group to date); has received research support from the National Institutes of Health, the Burroughs Wellcome Fund, the Cure Autism Now Foundation, NARSAD, the Philadelphia Foundation, and the Department of Veteran Affairs; and has given academic lectures in grand rounds and other clinical or scientific venues. Dr Gelernter has received financial support or compensation for the following: related to consultation for Columbia University, the Thailand Center for Excellence for Life Sciences (TCELS), the University of CT Health Center, NIH, and Faegre & Benson; related to grant reviews for the National Institutes of Health; and related to academic lectures and editorial functions in various scientific venues (including the ACNP). Drs Yang, Birnbaum, and Nestler do not have any additional financial support, compensation, or personal financial holdings to disclose according to journal policy.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Potenza, M., Brodkin, E., Yang, BZ. et al. Quantitative Trait Locus Analysis Identifies Rat Genomic Regions Related to Amphetamine-Induced Locomotion and Gαi3 Levels in Nucleus Accumbens. Neuropsychopharmacol 33, 2735–2746 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.npp.1301667
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.npp.1301667
