Summary
Model-fitting methods are now prominent in the analysis of human behavioural variation. Various ways of specifying models have been proposed. These are identical in their simplest form but differ in the emphasis given to more subtle sources of variation. The biometrical genetical approach allows flexibility in the specification of non-additive factors. Given additivity, the approach of path analysis may be used to specify several environmental models in the presence of assortative mating. In many cases the methods should yield identical conclusions.
Several statistical methods have been proposed for parameter estimation and hypothesis testing. The most suitable rely on the method of maximum likelihood for the estimation of variance and covariance components. Any multifactorial model can be formulated in these terms. The choice of method will depend chiefly on the design of the experiment and the ease with which a data summary can be obtained without significant loss of information.
Examples are given in which the causes of variation show different degrees of detectable complexity. A variety of experimental designs yield behavioural data which illustrate the contribution of additive and non-additive genetical effects, the mating system, sibling and cultural effects, the interaction of genetical effects with age and sex. The discrimination between alternative hypotheses is often difficult. The extension of the approach to the analysis of multiple measurements and discontinuous traits is considered
Similar content being viewed by others
Article PDF
References
Allen, G. 1965. Twin research: problems and prospects. Progress in Medical Genetics, 4, 242–269.
Allen, G. 1968. Diagnostic efficiency of finger print and blood group differences in a series of twins. Acta Genet Med Gemell, 17, 359.
Bailey, N T J. 1961. Introduction to the Mathematical Theory of Genetic Linkage. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Behrman, J, Taubman, P, and Wales, T. 1977. Controlling for and measuring the effects of genetic and family environment in equations for schooling and labour market success. In Kinometrics, ed. P. Taubman. North Holland: Amsterdam.
Bock, R D, and Kolakowski, D. 1973. Further evidence of sex-linked major gene influence on human spatial visualising ability. Amer J Human Genet, 25, 1–14.
Bock, R D, and Vandenberg, S G. 1968. Components of heritable variation in mental test scores. In Progress in Human Behavior Genetics, ed. S. G. Vandenberg. Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, Maryland.
Breland, N S. 1973. A test of a primary bias in twin studies with respect to measured ability. Behavior Genetics, 4, 101–109.
Breland, N S. 1978. Twin correlations published between 1875 through 1971. In Twin Studies of Ability, Personality and Interests, ed. R. C. Nichols. Homo (in press).
Broad Hurst, P L, and Jinks, J L. 1966. Stability and change in the inheritance of behaviour in rats. A further analysis of statistics from diallel cross. Proc Roy Soc, B, 165, 450–472.
Burt, C. 1966. The genetic determination of differences in intelligence: a study of monozygotic twins reared together and apart. Brit J Psychol, 57, 137–153.
Cattell, R B. 1960. The multiple abstract variance analysis equations and solutions for nature: nurture research on continuous variables. Psychol Rev, 67, 353–372.
Cavalli-Sforza, L L, and Feldman, M W. 1973. Cultural versus biological inheritance: phenotypic transmission from parents to children (a theory of the effect of parental phenotypes on children's phenotypes). Amer J Human Genet, 25, 618–637.
Cederlöf, R, Friberg, L, Jonsson, E, and Kaij, L. 1961. Studies on similarity diagnosis in twins with the aid of mailed questionnaires. Acta Genetica et Statistica Medica, (Basel), 11, 338–362.
Cederlöf, R, Friberg, L, and Lundman, T. 1977. The interactions of smoking, heredity and environment and their implications for disease etiology. Acta Medica Scandinavica, Suppl., 612.
Christian, J C, and Kang, K W. 1977. Maternal influence on plasma cholesterol variation. Amer J Human Genet, 20, 462–467.
Christian, J C, Kang, K W, and Norton, J A. 1974. Choice of an estimate of genetic variance from twin data. Amer J Human Genet, 26, 154–161.
Claridge, G, Canter, S, and Hume, W I. 1973. Personality Differences and Biological Variations: A Study of Twins. Pergamon Press, Oxford.
Cooke, P, Morley Jones, R, Mather, K, Bonsall, G W, and Nelder, J A. 1962. Estimating the components of continuous variation. I. Statistical. Heredity, 17, 211–236.
Corey, L A, Kang, K W, Christian, J C, Norton, J A Jr, Harris, R E, and Nance, W E. 1976. Effects of chorion type on variation in cord blood cholesterol of monozygotic twins. Amer J Human Genet, 28, 433–441.
Darlington, C D. 1969. Evolution of Man and Society. Allen and Unwin, London.
Darlington, C D. 1971. Axiom and process in genetics. Nature, 234, 521–525.
Dawkins, R. 1976. The Selfish Gene. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Defries, J C, Ashton, G C, Johnson, R C, Kuse, A R, McClear, G E, Mi, M P, Rashad, M N, Vandenberg, S G, and Wilson, J R. 1976. Parent-offspring resemblance for specific cognitive abilities in two ethnic groups. Nature, 261, 131–133.
Dworkin, R H, Burke, B W, and Maher, B A. 1976. A longitudinal study of the genetics of personality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 510–518.
Eaves, L J. 1972. Computer simulation of sample size and experimental design in human psychogenetics. Psychological Bulletin, 77, 144–152.
Eaves, L J. 1975. Testing models for variation in intelligence. Heredity, 34, 132–136.
Eaves, L J. 1976a. A model for sibling effects in man. Heredity, 36, 205–215.
Eaves, L J. 1976b. The effect of cultural transmission on continuous variation. Heredity, 37, 41–57.
Eaves, L J. 1977. Inferring the causes of human variation. J Roy Stat Soc Ser A, 140, 324–355.
Eaves, L J, and Eysenck, H J. 1974. Genetics and the development of social attitudes. Nature, 249, 288–289.
Eaves, L J, and Eysenck, H J. 1976a. Genetical and environmental components of inconsistency and unrepeatability in twins' responses to a neuroticism questionnaire. Behavior Genetics, 6, 145–160.
Eaves, L J, and Eysenck, H J. 1976b. Genotype × Age interaction for neuroticism. Behavior Genetics, 6, 359–362.
Eaves, L J, and Eysenck, H J. 1977. A genotype-environmental model for psychoticism. Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy, 1, 5–26.
Eaves, L J, and Gale, J S. 1974. A method for analysing the genetic basis of covariation. Behavior Genetics, 4, 253–267.
Eaves, L J, and Jinks, J L. 1972. Insignificance of evidence for differences in heritability of IQ between races and social classes. Nature, 240, 84–88.
Eaves, L J, Last, Krystyna, Martin, N G, and Jinks, J L. 1977. A progressive approach to non-additivity and genotype-environmental covariance in the analysis of human differences. Brit J Math Statist Psychol, 30, 1–42.
Eaves, L J, Martin, N G, and Eysenck, S B G. 1977. An application of the analysis of covariance structures to the psychogenetical study of impulsiveness. Brit J Math Statist Psychol, 30, 185–197.
Edwards, J H. 1969. Familial predisposition in man. Brit Med Bull, 25, 58–63.
Elston, R C, and Campbell, M A. 1970. Schizophrenia: evidence for the major gene hypothesis. Behavior Genetics, 1, 3–10.
Elston, R C, and Rao, D C. 1978. Statistical modelling and analysis in human genetics. Ann Rev Biophys Bioeng, 7, 253–286.
Eysenck, H J. 1951. Primary social attitudes as related to social class and political party. Brit J Sociol, 2, 198–209.
Eysenck, H J. 1952. The Scientific Study of Personality. Routledge and Kegan Paul, London.
Eysenck, H J. 1967. The Biological Basis of Personality. Thomas Springfield, Illinois.
Eysenck, H J. 1973. The Inequality of Man. Temple Smith, London.
Eysenck, S B G, and Eysenck, H J. 1975. Manual of the EPQ (Eysenck Personality Questionnaire). University of London Press, London.
Eysenck, S B G, and Eysenck, H J. 1977. The place of impulsiveness in a dimensional system of personality description. Brit J Soc Clin Psychol, 16, 57–68.
Falconer, D S. 1964. Maternal effects and selection response. Genetics Today Proceedings of the XI International Congress of Genetics, The Hague, Netherlands, September 1963. Pergamon Press, Oxford.
Falconer, D S. 1965. The inheritance of liability to certain diseases estimated from the incidence among relatives. Ann Human Genet (London), 29, 51–76.
Feldman, H W, and Lewontin, R C. 1975. The heritability hang-up. Science, 190, 1163–1168.
Fischbein, S. 1978. Intra-pair similarity in physical growth of monozygotic and of dizygotic twins during puberty. Ann Human Biol, 4, 417–430.
Fisher, R A. 1918. The correlation between relatives on the supposition of Mendelian inheritance. Trans Roy Soc Edinburgh, 52, 399–433.
Fisher, R A, Immer, F R, and Tedin, D. 1932. The genetical interpretation of statistics of the third degree in the study of quantitative inheritance. Genetics, 17, 107–124.
Fulker, D W. 1973. A biometrical genetical approach to intelligence and schizophrenia. Social Biology, 20, 266–275.
Fulker, D W. 1975. Review of “The science and politics of IQ”. Amer J Psychol, 88, 505–519.
Goldberger, A S. 1977a. The non-resolution of inheritance by path analysis. University of Wisconsin-Madison, Social Systems Research Institute Workship Services, Number 7709.
Goldberger, A S. 1977b. Models and methods in the IQ, debate: Part I. University of Wisconsin-Madison, Social Systems Research Institute Workshop Series, Number 7710.
Goldberger, A S. 1977c. Twin methods: a skeptical view. In Kinometrics, ed. P. Taubman. North-Holland, Amsterdam.
Gottesman, I I. 1963. Heritability of personality: a demonstration. Psychological Monographs, 77.
Gottesman, I I, and Shields, J. 1967. A polygenic theory of schizophrenia. Proc Nat Acad Sci, USA, 58, 199–205.
Gottesman, I I, and Shields, J. 1972. Schizophrenia and Genetics. Academic Press, New York.
Hamilton, W D. 1964a. The genetical evolution of social behaviour. I. J Theoret Biol, 7, 1–16.
Hamilton, W D. 1964b. The genetical evolution of social behaviour. II. J Theoret Biol, 7, 17–52.
Hewitt, J. 1974. An analysis of data from a twin study of social attitudes. Ph.D. thesis, University of Birmingham.
Hewitt, J K, Eysenck, H J, and Eaves, L J. 1977. Structure of social attitudes after 25 years: a replication. Psychological Reports, 40, 183–188.
Husén, T. 1960. Abilities of twins. Scand J Psychol, 1, 125–135.
Insel, P M. 1974. Maternal effects in personality. Behavior Genetics, 4, 133–143.
Jencks, C. et al. 1972. Inequality: A reassessment of the Effect of Family and Schooling in America. Basic Books, New York.
Jinks, J L, and Eaves, L J. 1974. IQ and inequality. Nature, 248, 287–289.
Jinks, J L, and Fulker, D W. 1970. Comparison of the biometrical genetical, MAVA and classical approaches to the analysis of human behavior. Psychol Bull, 73, 311–349.
Jöreskog, K G. 1969. A general approach to confirmatory maximum likelihood factor analysis. Psychometrika, 34, 183–202.
Jöreskog, K G. 1973. Analysis of covariance structures. In Multivariate Analysis, III, ed. P. R. Krishnaiah. Academic Press, New York.
Kamin, L J. 1974. The Science and Politics of IQ. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Potomac, Maryland.
Kasriel, J, and Eaves, L J. 1976. The zygosity of twins: further evidence on the agreement between diagnosis by blood groups and written questionnaires. Journal of Biosocial Science, 8, 263–266.
Kempthorne, O, and Osborne, R H. 1961. The interpretation of twin data. Ann Human Genet, 13, 320–329.
Klein, T W. 1974. Heritability and genetic correlation: statistical power, population comparisons and sample size. Behavior Genetics, 4, 171–189.
Koch, Helen L. 1964. A study of twins born at different levels of maturity. Child Development, 35, 1265–1282.
Lange, K, Westlake, J, and Spence, M A. 1976a. Extensions to pedigree analysis. II. Recurrence risk calculation under the polygenic threshold model. Human Heredity, 26, 337–348.
Lange, K, Westlake, J, and Spence, M A. 1976b. Extensions to pedigree analysis. III. Variance components by the scoring method. Ann Human Genet (London), 39, 485–491.
Last, K A. 1978. Genetical aspects of human behaviour. Ph.D thesis, University of Birmingham.
Layzer, D. 1974. Heritability analysis of IQ scores: science or numerology. Science, 183, 1259–1266.
Lilienfeld, A. 1961. Problems and areas in genetic-epidemiological field studies. Ann NT Acad Sci, 91, 797–805.
Loehlin, J C, and Nicholas, R C. 1976. Heredity, Environment and Personality. A study of 850 sets of Twins. University of Texas Press, Austin and London.
Loehlin, J C, and Vandenberg, S G. 1968. Genetic and environmental components in the covariation of cognitive abilities: an additive model. In Progress in Human Behavior Genetics, ed. S. G. Vandenberg. Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, Maryland.
Lootsma, F A. 1972. A survey of methods for solving constrained minimisation problems via unconstrained minimisation, In Numerical Methods for Non-linear Optimisation. Academic Press, London.
Lord, F M, and Novick, M R. 1968. Statistical Theories of Mental Test Scores. Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts.
Lytton, H. 1977. Do parents create or respond to differences in twins? Developmental Psychology, 13, 456–459.
Lytton, H, Conway, D, and Sauve, R. 1977. The impact of twinship on parent-child interaction. J Pers Soc Psychol, 35, 97–107.
Martin, N G, and Eaves, L J. 1977. The genetical analysis of covariance structure. Heredity, 38, 79–95.
Martin, N G, Eaves, L J, Kearsey, M J, and Davtes, P. 1978. The power of the classical twin study. Heredity, 40, 97–116.
Martin, N G, and Eysenck, H J. 1976. Genetic factors in sexual behaviour. In Sex and Personality, Chapter 6, H. J. Eysenck. Open Books, London.
Matheny, A P Jr, Wilson, R S, and Dolan, A B. 1976. Relations between twins' similarity of appearance and behavioural similarity: testing an assumption. Behavior Genetics, 6, 343–351.
Mather, K, and Jinks, J L. 1971. Biometrical Genetics. Chapman and Hall, London.
Maynard Smith, J. 1964. Group selection and kin selection. Nature, 201, 1145–1147.
Moran, P A P. 1973. A note on heritability and the correlation between relatives. Ann Human Genet, 37, 217.
Morton, N E. 1969. Segregation analysis. In Computer Applications in Genetics, ed. N. E. Morton. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.
Morton, N E. 1976. Heritability of IQ (Letter). Science, 194, 9–10.
Nance, W E, and Corey, L. 1976. Genetic models for the analysis of data from the families of identical twins. Genetics, 83, 811–826.
Nelder, J A, and Wedderburn, R W W. 1972. Generalised linear models. J Roy Statist Soc, A, 135, 370–384.
Numerical, Algorithms Group. 1974. EO4HAF, N.A.G. Library Manual, Mark IV. N.A.G. Central Office, Oxford University, Oxford.
Plomin, R, Willerman, L, and Loehlin, J C. 1976. Resemblance in appearance and the equal environments assumption in twin studies of personality traits. Behavior Genetics, 6, 43–52.
Price, B. 1950. Primary biases in twin studies: a review of pre-natal and natal difference-producing factors in monozygotic pairs. Amer J Human Genet, 2, 293–352.
Rao, D C, Morton, N E, and Yee, S. 1974. Analysis of family resemblance. II. A linear model for familial correlation. Amer J Human Genet, 26, 331–359.
Rao, D C, Morton, N E, and Yee, S. 1976. Resolution of cultural and biological inheritance by path analysis. Amer J Human Genet, 28, 228–242.
Record, R G, McKeown, T, and Edwards, J H. 1970. An investigation of the difference in measured intelligence between twin and single births. Ann Human Genet (London), 34, 11–20.
Rutter, M, and Madge, N. 1976. Cycles of Disadvantage. Heinemann, London.
Scarr, S. 1968. Environmental bias in twin studies. Eugenics Quarterly, 15, 34–40.
Scarr, S, and Weinberg, R A. 1976. IQ test performance of black children adopted by white families. American Psychologist, 31, 726–739.
Shields, J. 1962. Monozygotic Twins: Brought Up Apart and Brought Up Together. Oxford University Press, London.
Slater, E, and Cowie, V. 1971. The Genetics of Mental Disorders. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Smith, C. 1971. Discriminating between different modes of inheritance in genetic disease. Clinical Genetics, 2, 303–313.
Smith, R T. 1965. A comparison of socio-environmental factors in monozygotic and dizygotic twins, testing an assumption. In Methods and Goals in Human Behavior Genetics, ed. S. G. Vandenberg. Academic Press, New York.
Spence, M A, Westlake, J, and Lange, K. 1977. Estimation of variance components for dermal ridge count. Ann Human Genet, 41, 111–115.
Stafford, R E. 1961. Sex differences in spatial visualisation as evidence of sex-linked inheritance. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 13, 428.
Tallis, G M. 1962. The maximum likelihood estimation of correlation from contingency tables. Biometrics, 18, 342–353.
Tukey, J W. 1951. Components in regression. Biometrics, 7, 33–69.
Vandenberg, S G. 1965. Multivariate analysis of twin differences. In Methods and Goals in Human Behavior Genetics, ed. S. G. Vandenberg. Academic Press, New York.
Vandenberg, S G. 1966. Contributions of twin research to psychology. Psychol Bull, 66, 327–352.
Wilson, E O. 1975. Sociobiology: The New Synthesis. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Wilson, G. 1975. Manual for the Wilson-Patterson Attitude Inventory. N.F.E.R. Publishing Co., London.
Wilson, R S. 1970. Blood typing and twin zygosity. Human Heredity, 20, 30–56.
Wilson, R S. 1972. Twins: early mental development. Science, 175, 914–917.
Young, P A. 1977. The causes of differences in juvenile personality. M.Sc. thesis, University of Birmingham.
Zajonc, R B. 1976. Family configuration and intelligence. Science, 192, 227–236.
Zuckerman, M. 1971. Dimensions of sensation seeking. J consult, din Psychol, 36, 45–52.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Eaves, L., Last, K., Young, P. et al. Model-fitting approaches to the analysis of human behaviour. Heredity 41, 249–320 (1978). https://doi.org/10.1038/hdy.1978.101
Received:
Issue date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/hdy.1978.101
This article is cited by
-
The structure of well-being: a single underlying factor with genetic and environmental influences
Quality of Life Research (2023)
-
Association of neurofilament light chain with renal function: mechanisms and clinical implications
Alzheimer's Research & Therapy (2022)
-
Incorporating Polygenic Risk Scores in the ACE Twin Model to Estimate A–C Covariance
Behavior Genetics (2021)
-
Notes on Three Decades of Methodology Workshops
Behavior Genetics (2021)
-
Narrow-sense heritability estimation of complex traits using identity-by-descent information
Heredity (2018)
