Table 1 Clinical signs of suspected biofilm infections
Possible biofilm infections | Clinical manifestations and paraclinical changes | The common pathogens |
|---|---|---|
Endocarditis | Patients equipping with or without prosthetic heart valves or pacemaker, who have intermittent fever and bacteremia with an identical pathogen and without an obvious focus, but higher C-reaction proteins and/or erythrocyte sedimentation rate with or without leukocytosis88,89 | S. aureus, Streptococcus species, coagulase-negative staphylococci, Enterococcus species |
P. aeruginosa biofilm in CF/COPD | Patients with CF or COPD, who have been detected mucoid P. aeruginosa in sputum4 | P. aeruginosa |
Intravenous catheter biofilm | Patients with central venous catheter or hemodialysis catheter, who have recurrent bacteraemia with an identical pathogen12,90 | Coagulase-negative staphylococci |
Urinary catheter biofilm | Patients with urinary catheter, who have recurrent urinary tract infections with the same pathogen12,90 | Gram-negative rods, Candida species, Enterococcus species |
Biofilm infections of orthopaedics | Patients with joint prostheses or orthopedic fixation devices, who have chronic pain locally and sign of prostheses loosening13 | S. aureus, coagulase-negative staphylococci |
Wound biofilm | Patients with chronic wound and recurrent wound infections25,26 | S. aureus, P. aeruginosa |
