Abstract
Microorganisms capable of actively solubilizing and precipitating gold appear to play a larger role in the biogeochemical cycling of gold than previously believed. Recent research suggests that bacteria and archaea are involved in every step of the biogeochemical cycle of gold, from the formation of primary mineralization in hydrothermal and deep subsurface systems to its solubilization, dispersion and re-concentration as secondary gold under surface conditions. Enzymatically catalysed precipitation of gold has been observed in thermophilic and hyperthermophilic bacteria and archaea (for example, Thermotoga maritime, Pyrobaculum islandicum), and their activity led to the formation of gold- and silver-bearing sinters in New Zealand's hot spring systems. Sulphate-reducing bacteria (SRB), for example, Desulfovibrio sp., may be involved in the formation of gold-bearing sulphide minerals in deep subsurface environments; over geological timescales this may contribute to the formation of economic deposits. Iron- and sulphur-oxidizing bacteria (for example, Acidothiobacillus ferrooxidans, A. thiooxidans) are known to breakdown gold-hosting sulphide minerals in zones of primary mineralization, and release associated gold in the process. These and other bacteria (for example, actinobacteria) produce thiosulphate, which is known to oxidize gold and form stable, transportable complexes. Other microbial processes, for example, excretion of amino acids and cyanide, may control gold solubilization in auriferous top- and rhizosphere soils. A number of bacteria and archaea are capable of actively catalysing the precipitation of toxic gold(I/III) complexes. Reductive precipitation of these complexes may improve survival rates of bacterial populations that are capable of (1) detoxifying the immediate cell environment by detecting, excreting and reducing gold complexes, possibly using P-type ATPase efflux pumps as well as membrane vesicles (for example, Salmonella enterica, Cupriavidus (Ralstonia) metallidurans, Plectonema boryanum); (2) gaining metabolic energy by utilizing gold-complexing ligands (for example, thiosulphate by A. ferrooxidans) or (3) using gold as metal centre in enzymes (Micrococcus luteus). C. metallidurans containing biofilms were detected on gold grains from two Australian sites, indicating that gold bioaccumulation may lead to gold biomineralization by forming secondary ‘bacterioform’ gold. Formation of secondary octahedral gold crystals from gold(III) chloride solution, was promoted by a cyanobacterium (P. boryanum) via an amorphous gold(I) sulphide intermediate. ‘Bacterioform’ gold and secondary gold crystals are common in quartz pebble conglomerates (QPC), where they are often associated with bituminous organic matter possibly derived from cyanobacteria. This may suggest that cyanobacteria have played a role in the formation of the Witwatersrand QPC, the world's largest gold deposit.
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Acknowledgements
We thank the following colleagues and institutions for their contributions, support and funding: Dr DC McPhail, Dr SL Rogers, Dr BN Opdyke, Dr S Wakelin, Dr R Hough, Dr P Clode, Dr J Brugger, CRC LEME, CSIRO Land and Water, CSIRO Exploration and Mining, The Australian National University, Barrick Gold Corp., Newmont Mining Corp., The South Australian Museum and AUSIMM. Funding for part of the work presented in this manuscript was also supported by National Science Foundation LExEn Program (EAR-9714214) and an NSERC Discovery Grant to G Southam. D Falconer and D Craw acknowledge financial support from the University of Otago, Geology Department Research Fund. Technical assistance was provided by the South Campus Electron Microscopy Unit and from Dr D Chappell and Dr L Patterson from the Geology Department, OU. We also thank the ISME editor Professor G Kowalchuk and the unnamed reviewers for their corrections and suggestions.
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Reith, F., Lengke, M., Falconer, D. et al. The geomicrobiology of gold. ISME J 1, 567–584 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1038/ismej.2007.75
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