Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Original Article
  • Published:

Evaluating children’s location using a personal GPS logging instrument: limitations and lessons learned

Abstract

Global positioning system (GPS) technology is increasingly used to assess geographically varying exposure in population studies. However, there has been limited evaluation of accuracy and completeness of personal GPS data. The ability of a GPS data logger to assess location of children during usual activity was evaluated. Data collected for 4 days from 17 children wearing GPS loggers, recorded every 15 s, were evaluated for completeness by time of day during weekend and weekdays, and for accuracy during nighttime at home. Percentage of possible GPS-recorded points and of 5-min intervals with at least one recorded location were examined. Mean percentage of total possible 15-s interval locations recorded daily was less than 30%. Across participants, the GPS loggers recorded 1–47% of total possible location points on weekends and 1–55% on weekdays. More complete data were measured during travel to school (average 91%). The percentage of daily 5-min intervals with recorded data was as high as 53%. At least one location was recorded during 69% of 5-min intervals before school (0630–0800 h), 62% during school (0800–1400 h) and 56% after school (1400−1700 h). During night time (0000–0600 h), on average, location was recorded for less than 25% of 5-min intervals and accuracy was poor. The large proportion of missing data limits the usefulness of GPS logging instruments for population studies. They have potential utility for assessing on-road travel time and route. GPS technology has limitations, and lessons learned from this evaluation can be generalized to the use of GPS in other research settings.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 5
Figure 6
Figure 7
Figure 8
Figure 9
Figure 10
Figure 11

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Maddison R, Ni Mhurchu C . Global positioning system: a new opportunity in physical activity measurement. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 2009; 6: 73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Grow HM, Saelens BE, Kerr J, Durant NH, Norman GJ, Sallis JF . Where are youth active? Roles of proximity, active transport, and built environment. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2008; 40 (12): 2071–2079.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Phillips ML, Hall TA, Esmen NA, Lynch R, Johnson DL . Use of global positioning system technology to track subject’s location during environmental exposure sampling. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 2001; 11 (3): 207–215.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. McKone TE, Ozkaynak H, Ryan PB . Exposure information in environmental health research: current opportunities and future directions for particulate matter, ozone, and toxic air pollutants. J Exp Sci Environ Epidemiol 2009; 19 (1): 30–44.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Elgethun K, Fenske RA, Yost MG, Palcisko GJ . Time-location analysis for exposure assessment studies of children using a novel global positioning system instrument. Environ Health Perspect 2003; 111 (1): 115–122.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Freeman NCG, Lioy PJ, Pellizzari EDO, Zelon H, Thomas K, Clayton A et al. Responses to the region 5 NHEXAS time/activity diary. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 1999; 9 (5): 414–426.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Stone AA, Shiffman S . Capturing momentary, self-report data: a proposal for reporting guidelines. Ann Behav Med 2002; 24 (3): 236–243.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Elgethun K, Yost MG, Fitzpatrick CT, Nyerges TL, Fenske RA . Comparison of global positioning system (GPS) tracking and parent-report diaries to characterize children’s time-location patterns. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 2007; 17 (2): 196–206.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Maddison R, Jiang Y, Vander Hoorn S, Exeter D, Mhurchu CN, Dorey E . Describing patterns of physical activity in adolescents using global positioning systems and accelerometry. Pediatr Exerc Sci 2010; 22 (3): 392–407.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Cooper AR, Page AS, Wheeler BW, Griew P, Davis L, Hillsdon M et al. Mapping the walk to school using accelerometry combined with a global positioning system. Am J Prev Med 2010; 38 (2): 178–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Nuckols JR, Ward MH, Jarup L . Using geographic information systems for exposure assessment in environmental epidemiology studies. Environ Health Perspect 2004; 112 (9): 1007–1015.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Duncan MJ, Badland HM, Mummery WK . Applying GPS to enhance understanding of transport-related physical activity. J Sci Med Sport 2009; 12 (5): 549–556.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Quigg R, Gray A, Reeder AI, Holt A, Waters DL . Using accelerometers and GPS units to identify the proportion of daily physical activity located in parks with playgrounds in New Zealand children. Prev Med 2010; 50 (5-6): 235–240.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Cooper AR, Page AS, Wheeler BW, Hillsdon M, Griew P, Jago R . Patterns of GPS measured time outdoors after school and objective physical activity in English children: the PEACH project. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 2010; 7: 31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Adams C, Riggs P, Volckens J . Development of a method for personal, spatiotemporal exposure assessment. J Environ Monit 2009; 11 (7): 1331–1339.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Gerharz LE, Kruger A, Klemm O . Applying indoor and outdoor modeling techniques to estimate individual exposure to PM2.5 from personal GPS profiles and diaries: a pilot study. Sci Total Environ 2009; 407 (18): 5184–5193.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Wu J, Jiang C, Liu Z, Houston D, Jaimes G, McConnell R . Performances of different global positioning system devices for time-location tracking in air pollution epidemiological studies. Environ Health Insights 2010; 4: 93–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Tager I, Hammond SK, Balmes J, Mann J, Mortimer K, Neugebauer R et al. Fresno Asthmatic Children’s Environment Study (FACES). Final report prepared for the California Air Resources Board, Sacramento, CA. University of California, Berkeley, CA; Sonoma Technology, Inc., Petaluma, CA; California Air Resources Board, Sacramento, CA; and California Department of Health Services, Richmond, CA. Report No.: ARB Contract # 99-322 (STI-903370.07-2863) 2006.

  19. Goldberg D . The USC WebGIS Geocoding Platform. GIS Res Lab Res Rep 2011; 11: http://spatial.usc.edu/wp-content/uploads/gislabtr11.pdf (accessed 28 February 2013).

  20. Boscoe F . The science and art of geocoding. In: Rushton G, Armstrong MP, Gittler J, Greene BR, Pavlik CE, West MM, et al (eds. Geocoding Health Data: The Use of Geographic Codes in Cancer Prevention and Control, Research and Practice. CRC Press: Boca Raton. 2008, pp 95–109.

    Google Scholar 

  21. Donders AR, van der Heijden GJ, Stijnen T, Moons KG . Review: a gentle introduction to imputation of missing values. J Clin Epidemiol 2006; 59 (10): 1087–1091.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Hu S, Fruin S, Kozawa K, Mara S, Paulson SE, Winer AM . A wide area of air pollutant impact downwind of a freeway during pre-sunrise hours. Atmos Environ 2009; 43 (16): 2541–2549.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Ozkaynak H, Palma T, Touma JS, Thurman J . Modeling population exposures to outdoor sources of hazardous air pollutants. J Expos Sci Environ Epidemiol 2007; 18 (1): 45–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Zhu Y, Hinds WC, Kim S, Sioutas C . Concentration and size distribution of ultrafine particles near a major highway. J Air Waste Manag Assoc 2002; 52 (9): 1032–1042.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Zhou Y, Levy JI . Factors influencing the spatial extent of mobile source air pollution impacts: a meta-analysis. BMC Public Health 2007; 7: 89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Behrentz E, Sabin LD, Winer AM, Fitz DR, Pankratz DV, Colome SD et al. Relative importance of school bus-related microenvironments to children's pollutant exposure. J Air Waste Manag Assoc 2005; 55 (10): 1418–1430.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Adams C, Riggs P, Volckens J . Development of a method for personal, spatiotemporal exposure assessment. J Environ Monitor 2009; 11 (7): 1331–1339.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Rainham D, Krewski D, McDowell I, Sawada M, Liekens B . Development of a wearable global positioning system for place and health research. Int J Health Geogr 2008; 7: 59.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Morabia A, Amstislavski PN, Mirer FE, Amstislavski TM, Eisl H, Wolff MS et al. Air pollution and activity during transportation by car, subway, and walking. Am J Prev Med 2009; 37 (1): 72–77.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Zandbergen PA . Accuracy of iPhone locations: a comparison of assisted GPS, WiFi and cellular positioning. Transact GIS 2009; 13: 5–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Zandbergen PA, Barbeau SJ . Positional accuracy of assisted GPS data from high-sensitivity GPS-enabled mobile phones. J Navig 2011; 64 (03): 381–399.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This study was supported by the NIEHS grant numbers 5P30ES007048, 5P01ES011627, 5P01ES009581 and 5R01 ES016535; the USEPA grant numbers R826708 and RD831861; and the Hastings Foundation.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Rob McConnell.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Dueker, D., Taher, M., Wilson, J. et al. Evaluating children’s location using a personal GPS logging instrument: limitations and lessons learned. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 24, 244–252 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1038/jes.2013.11

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/jes.2013.11

Keywords

This article is cited by

Search

Quick links