Figure 1: Geographic context for the present study.

Map showing modern locations of the ITCZ in July and January6. Locations of this study (W1, Dongdao Island) and other hydrology records near the northern limit of western Pacific ITCZ (W45, W54, W620). The dark cell represents the PWC. Areas in equatorial Pacific with correlation coefficient between SOI and precipitation above 0.6 are marked in red (named PA) and below −0.6 are marked in blue (named NA)3. Locations of the rainfall records in the PA of western Pacific (W1-our South China Sea records, W2-Indonesia6,7 and W3-Indonesia8) and NA of eastern mid-tropical Pacific (M1-Washington Island17, E1-Galapagos13, E2-Ecuador12) are marked. Hydrology records from Peru (E310,11) are also indicated. Locations that were drier/wetter during the Little Ice Age (LIA, ∼AD 1400–1850) than during the MCA, ∼AD 800–1300) are marked in red/blue.