Table 4 Summary of study outcomes.

Abbott et al. [57]

To assess the uptake of transfer from a face-to-face to a virtual group weight management programme during COVID-19 pandemic and investigate predictors of uptake

Acceptance of virtual group

• Reasons for lack of acceptance: lack of internet access (89.8%), preference for face-to-face sessions (10.2%)

• Older and BAME patients less likely to engage

Ahrendt et al. [45]

To determine the effectiveness of delivering the MOVE! Weight Management Program using videoconferencing technology

Weight-related: Weight, BMI

Wellbeing: QoL, Depression, eating disorder

Behavioural: Self efficacy

Intervention group lost weight while control gained weight (mean difference in weight loss between groups: 5.5 kg)

Batsis et al. [51]

To assess the feasibility, acceptability and preliminary outcomes of an integrated technology-based health promotion intervention in rural-living, older adults

Feasibility & acceptability

Completion & attendance

Changes in weight & movement (30STS), walk & grip strength, disability

• High satisfaction with the trial

• Mean weight loss: 4.6 ± 3.5 kg (4.7%) - 50% of cohort had clinically significant improvement

• 30STS improved from 13.5 ± 5.7 to 16.7 ± 5.9 repetitions; clinically significant changes in 6-min walk: 42.0 ± 77.3 m; Improvements in total, upper, basic lower, and advanced lower extremity function

• No change in gait speed and grip strength

Bernhart et al. [46]

To assess the reach and effectiveness of a virtual vegan diet intervention for African Americans

Weight-related: Weight, BMI

Diet-related: Diet self-efficacy, Diet quality

Well-being: QoL

• Synchronous and asynchronous groups had significant reduction in weight and BMI

• QoL increased significantly in asynchronous group only

• Self-efficacy significantly increased in both groups; self-perception of health increased in asynchronous only

Bruce et al. [47]

To examine the efficacy of a behavioural weight loss intervention for people with Multiple Sclerosis and obesity

Weight-related: Weight loss, BMI, waist-to-height ratio, % fat tissue

Behavioural: Physical activity, mobility,

Well-being: fatigue, QoL

• Statistically significant difference between groups in activity (increased in IG, decreased in TAU group); no statistically significant difference in mobility

• Statistically significant difference in weight loss (higher in IG vs TAU), BMI and waist-to-height ratio

• Mental QoL increased in IG vs TAU but not physical QoL

Cavallo et al. [52]

To examine the feasibility of delivering a group-based weight-loss intervention adapted to low-income women of reproductive age using Web-based educational content and social media.

Weight-related: Weight,

Behavioural: Physical activity, dietary habits

Intervention-related: acceptability, barriers to use

• Mean change in walking time: 116.3 minutes/week (SD = 191.6 minutes/week); mean change in servings/day of fruit and vegetables was 0.5 servings/day (SD = 1.5 servings/day)

• Mean weight change in completers was -1.3 kg (SD 4.4 kg); 7/12 participants lost weight.

• Lack of access to internet, intervention components on multiple platforms, lack of prior familiarity with other participants were reported as issues

• Feedback: Additional tools, more frequent group sessions, more reminders, and tips to improve group cohesion

Cliffe et al. [53]

To understand participant experience of accessing an adapted programme via videoconference

Qualitative experience

• Seven behaviour change themes: Personal responsibility; decision ownership; connectedness; identifying; peer support; new strategies; favourable comparisons.

Fraticelli et al. [48]

To compare a web-based nutritional intervention versus a traditional one, before and during the Italian ‘lockdown’ period, in overweight and obese participants affected by T2D or impaired glucose regulation (IGR)

Weight-related: BMI data, Waist-to-height ratio

Blood markers: capillary fasting blood glucose, venous HbA1c, blood pressure and PREDIMED scores

• Progressive weight loss and improvement of BMI; decrease in median WHR

• No significant differences for other outcomes

Griffith et al. [44]

To assess the feasibility, acceptability, and impact of a behavioural virtual weight loss intervention tailored for middle-aged African American men

Feasibility, acceptability

Weight-related: Anthropometric measures

Blood markers

• No significant within group changes for eating practices or physical activity. Fruit and vegetable consumption and vegetable intake increased for intervention group.

• Small but significant decrease in BMI. Weight and body fat decreased but not significant

• Only some participants felt supported by other group members

Harvey-Berino et al. [37]

To evaluate the efficacy of an Internet behavioural weight loss program; and determine if adding periodic in-person sessions to an Internet intervention improves outcomes

Weight loss

• Reductions in calorie intake in all groups (inc. f2f)

• In person weight loss significantly greater than internet and hybrid groups; proportion losing 7% did not differ significantly between groups

• In person participants perceived group support to be significantly higher than internet but hybrid did not differ from either; working alliance raated similarly

Harvey-Berino et al. [38]

To understand the accuracy of self-reported weight over a 6-month Web-based obesity program

Accuracy of self-reported weight measurements

• Significant difference between weight loss calculated using reported weight vs observed weight - reported weight change larger than observed. This also differed significantly by race (higher reported in African American vs white) and by condition (lower for internet vs hybrid) but not gender.

Krukowski et al. [40]

To assess the costs associated with a group behavioural weight loss intervention and compare cost-effectiveness based on treatment delivery modality (in-person vs. Internet).

Weight, BMI

• Participants in the Internet condition lost an average of 5.5 ± 5.6 kg

Krukowski et al. [39]

To examine patterns of self-monitoring associated with greater weight loss at 6-months.

Weight, self-monitoring

• Mean weight loss of 5.5 ± 5.6 kg at six months

• Female participants significantly less likely to log in to the self-monitoring tool than male; greater self-monitoring for older participants

• Overall logins were significant predictor of weight loss

Stansbury et al. [41]

To characterise individuals with distinct patterns of weekly adherence to Physical Activity goals.

Adherence to physical activity goals

• Greatest weight losses in subgroup likely to meet program goals for weekly minutes of moderate-to-vigorous PA and daily steps.

West et al. [42]

To assess whether adding financial incentives for self-monitoring and achieving target weight losses increases weight losses attained in a fully online, group-based behavioural weight management program compared with the same program alone

Weight loss

Engagement (attendance, self-monitoring of body weight, dietary intake, and physical activity)

• Incentives group lost more weight than no incentives

• Treatment engagement and study retention higher in incentives condition

West et al. [43]

To examine the impact of an integrated incentive scheme and to explore what happens to weight outcomes and critical weight management behaviours once financial incentives end.

Weight loss

Engagement (attendance, self-monitoring of body weight, dietary intake, and physical activity)

• Greater weight loss associated with financial incentives at 6 months, with significantly greater proportion achieving clinically meaningful weight loss (but not statistically significant).

• This result no longer apparen at month 12 but significantly greater proportion of incentives group were weight stable from month 6 to month 12

West et al. [54]

To examine whether the addition of online motivational interviewing (MI) chats to a web-based, group behavioural obesity treatment program augments weight loss outcomes relative to the web-based weight control program alone.

Weight loss

Attendance, self-monitoring

• No significant differences in weight loss between groups with and without motivational interviewing

• No difference in self-monitoring or attendance between groups

West et al. [55]

To assess value of feedback type incorporated into online groups

Weight loss

• Those receiving pre-scripted feedback lost more weight than those receiving tailored feedback.

Wild et al. [49]

To assess the efficacy of interventions after bariatric surgery. The online intervention was aimed at training strategies, and skills to improve coping, stress management and relaxation.

Weight-related: Weight, BMI

Wellbeing: QoL, Depression, eating disorder

Behavioural: Self efficacy

• No differences between intervention and control in QoL, self efficacy, eating psychopathology and depressive symptoms.

• Patients significantly reduced weight but no difference between the groups.

• In subgroup of patients with depression, intervention significantly improved depression and QoL scores.

Willis et al. [50]

To evaluate the practicality and efficacy of using an online social network to deliver a weight management programme

Weight-related: BMI, Weight, Waist circumference

Diet: energy and macronutrient intake

• Weight change (%) from baseline to 6 months was -5.8 (SD 6.7%) in online group

• Participants in online group reported a lack of familiarization with other members limited their comfort of sharing information

• Total cost per participant was lower in online vs telephone group