Fig. 4

Stem cell-based bone and dental regeneration: a view of microenvironmental modulation. Diseased microenvironments, such as hormonal disorders, hyperglycaemia and inflammation, severely impair the therapeutic efficacy of both endogenous and exogenous stem cell-based regeneration of bone and dental tissue. Accordingly, microenvironmental therapeutics, including improvement of the endogenous niche, selection and modification of donor stem cells, and restoration of recipient microenvironment, have shown great promises in optimizing stem cell-based bone and dental regeneration. Furthermore, extracellular vesicles are emerging as promising cell-free strategies for bone and dental regeneration