Fig. 4

3D-exos showed an enhanced ability to reduce the ratio of Th17 cells to Treg cells in both the inflamed gingiva and the colon. a A flow diagram showing the time of ligature-induced periodontitis and DSS-induced colitis induction, periodontal injection, and specimen collection. b–e Flow cytometric profiles of Foxp3 and IL-17 expression in CD4⁺ cells in the inflamed gingiva of the PBS-, 2D-exo- and 3D-exo-treated groups. Numerical values denote the mean percentage of CD4⁺ cells expressing Foxp3 and IL-17 in each group (n = 6). The error bars represent the SEM. *P < 0.05. f–i Flow cytometric profiles of Foxp3 and IL-17 expression in CD4⁺ cells in the inflamed colon of the PBS-, 2D-exo- and 3D-exo-treated groups. Numerical values denote the mean percentage of CD4⁺ cells expressing Foxp3 and IL-17 in each group (n = 6). The error bars represent the SEM. *P < 0.05