Table 3 Details of articles investigating the impact of MNPs on human cell lines.
From: Plastic induced urinary tract disease and dysfunction: a scoping review
Author (Year) Country | Research aim/question | Sample details | Analysis | Key findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Richards et al. (2023) Netherlands [83] | RQ: How many nanoparticles enter cells and how rapidly do they do so? | Cell Line: - HEK 293 Plastic Model: - Fluorescent-labelled carboxylated polystyrene (40–200 nm) - Shape: Spheres | - Live-cell confocal microscopy - Super-resolution Stimulated Emission Depletion microscopy - Flow cytometry | - Majority of NPs (40–200 nm) desorb from HEK 293 cell membranes within 1–2 s after adsorption. - Most particles that are internalised enter the cell within 1–2 s, independently of particle size. - Rapid internalisation is suggested to occur via an endocytic event already taking place or through an uncharacterised endocytic route. |
Xiao et al. (2023) China [46] | Aim: Assess toxicity of polystyrene NPs in kidney and testis via a kidney-testis microfluidic platform. | Cell Line: - HK-2 Plastic Model: - Fluorescent-labelled polystyrene (50 nm) - Shape: Spheres | - Cell viability - Glucose consumption - Transmission electron microscopy - Immunofluorescence staining - ELISA | - Polystyrene NPs were internalised by HK-2 cells via endocytosis. - Activation of cancer-related signalling pathways was triggered by polystyrene NPs (MAPK & PI3K-AKT). |
Zhu et al. (2023) China [43] | Aim: Investigate the renal toxicity of polystyrene NPs and the underlying mechanisms of their effect on human health. | Cell Line: - HK-2 Plastic Model: - Polystyrene (20, 50 nm) - Shape: Not described | - Cell viability - Lactate dehydrogenase - Transmission electron microscopy - Flow cytometry - Measurement of ROS - Mitochondrial membrane potential assessment - Endoplasmic reticulum staining - Transcriptional and RT-PCR - Western blot | - Polystyrene NPs exposure induced apoptosis in HK-2 cells in a dose-dependent manner, with 20 nm polystyrene NPs at 100 μg/mL causing both early and late apoptosis. - NPs increase ROS and alter mitochondria and Endoplasmic reticulum structures. - MAPK signalling pathway activated, with increased expression levels of phosphorylated p38 and ERK1/2, and induced inflammation and apoptosis in HK-2 cells. |
Yarbakht et al. (2021) Germany [51] | Aim: Evaluate the effects of microplastics including polycinylchloride, polpropylene, polyamide and tyre wear particles on the viability and morphology of human podocytes in vitro. | Cell Line: - Human podocytes Plastic Model: - Polyvinyl chloride, polypropylene, polyamide & tyre wear particles - Shape: Not described | - Cell viability - Phalloidin staining - Raman spectroscopy - Scanning electron microscopy | - Cytotoxicity of particles on podocytes depends on polymer type. - Particle attachment varies with adhesion properties. - Particles induce cytoskeleton reorganisation. - Exposure duration and particle concentrations are key factors in evaluating the toxicological effects of particles on podocytes, with particle attachment on the cell surface and uptake of smaller particles. through phagocytosis being potential mechanisms of harm. |
Firdessa et al. (2014) Germany [84] | Aim: Investigate whether a single cell type employs several uptake mechanisms simultaneously to internalise a given type of NPs. | Cell Line: - HEK 293T Plastic Model: - Polystyrene latex nanoparticles (20, 100, 200, 500 nm). - Shape: Spheres | - Cell viability - Flow cytometry - Macrophage infection by Leishmania major - Transmission electron microscopy - Fluorescence and confocal microscopy | - NPs are rapidly internalised and accumulate in endosomal compartments. - The internalisation process is energy-dependent. - Uptake depends on NPs size, cell type, and exposure time. - Multiple endocytosis pathways facilitate the uptake of NPs. |
Li et al. (2023) China [45] | Aim: Explore toxicity of polystyrene NPs to HEK 293T cells with a focus on the effects of particle sizes and Pb2+ enrichment. | Cell Line: - HEK 293 T Plastic Model: - Pristine polystyrene & fluorescent-labelled polystyrene (20, 60, 100, 500, 1000 nm) - Shape: Spheres | - Cell viability - Confocal microscopy - Measurement of ROS - Measurement of ATP - Lipid peroxidation - Measurement of lactate dehydrogenase - qRT-PCR | - NPs toxicity is size- and concentration-dependent. - 20 nm NPs reduced viability to 53.0%; with Pb2+, dropped to 26.7%. - 60 nm NPs reduced viability to 74.8%; with Pb2+, dropped to 50.8%. - Pb2+ on NPs increases toxicity. - NPs induce oxidative damage and inflammation in cells. - Exposure to NPs and Pb2+ triggers cell apoptosis |
Chen et al. Taiwan [44] | Aim: Determine the nephrotoxic potential of polystyrene MPs at realistic environmental concentrations. | Cell Line: - HEK 293 Plastic Model: - Polystyrene (~3.39 ± 0.30 μm). - Shape: Sphere | - Cell viability - Phase-contrast microscopy - DCFH-DA - JC-1 probe and DAPGreen staining - Quantibody® Human Inflammation Array 3 Kit - Western blot | - Polystyrene MPs adhered to and internalised in HEK 293 cells. - Exposure to polystyrene MPs at 30 and 300 ng/mL induced cytotoxicity and morphological changes. - Triggered autophagy and apoptosis in HEK 293 cells. - Nephrotoxicity was observed at both noncytotoxic and cytotoxic concentrations. |
Beltrame et al. Italy [49] | Aim: Evaluate the effects of Bisphenol A and polyethylene microplastics, as well as their combination, on HK-2 cells. | Cell Line: - HK-2 Plastic Model: - Polyethylene (1–4 μm) - Shape: Not described | - Microscopy - MTT - RT-PCR - Western blot - Immunofluorescence | - Exposure to polyethylene MPs and bisphenol A reduces cell viability. - Increases expression of inflammatory molecules. - Induces a pro-inflammatory response in renal tubular cells. - Combined effect of bisphenol A and MPs is worse than either alone. |
Cervello et al. Italy [50] | Aim: Evaluate the toxicity of polyethylene and bisphenol-A MPs on HK-2 cells in vitro. | Cell Line: - HK-2 Plastic Model: - Polyethylene - Shape: Sphere | - Proteomic analysis by mass spectrometry | - Proteomic analysis differentiated the HK-2 proteome based on conditioning. - Identified a “core” of significant proteins: Nephronectin, GDF15, Vasorin, IGFBP7, Midkine, and Tissue factor-F3. - Markers of stress conditions, including inflammation and oxidative stress. |
Goodman et al. (2022) United States of America [52] | Aim: Investigate the adverse effects that MPs have on cellular morphology, proliferation, stress, metabolism and internalisation in HEK 293 cells. | Cell Line: - HEK 293 Plastic Model: - Fluorescent-labelled polystyrene (1 μm) - Shape: Sphere | - Cell viability - Phase-contrast microscopy - MTT - Cell proliferation - Confocal fluorescence microscopy - Flow cytometry - Measurement of ROS - EdU cell proliferation assay - qRT-PCR | - 1 μm polystyrene MPs reduced cell proliferation. - Caused morphological changes in HEK 293 cells. - Increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels in exposed cells. - Lowered gene expression of key enzymes. |
La Porta. (2023) Italy [42] | Aim: Evaluate the in vitro toxicity of polyethylene MPs on HK-2 cells. | Cell Line: - HK-2 Plastic Model: - Pristine polyethylene, fluorescent-labelled polyethylene (1–4 μm) - Shape: Sphere | - Raman spectroscopy - MTT - Immunocytochemistry - Western blot - mRNA spectrophotometry - Proteomic analysis by mass spectrometry | - Exposure to MPs and bisphenol-A reduced cell viability. - Significant upregulation of MCP-1, IL-1b, AhR, and NOX-4. - Downregulation of HSP90. - NRF2 was downregulated by bisphenol-A and upregulated by MPs. |
Zhang et al. (2022) [47] | Aim: Examine the interaction of MPs and SARS-CoV-2 including the uptake of virus coated MP by cells. | Cell Line: - HEK 293T Plastic Model: - Polystyrene - Shape: Sphere | - Fluorescence microscopy - Confocal microscopy - Flow cytometry | - MP adsorb SARS-CoV-2 on their surface by shuttling the virus into the endo-lysosomal compartment. |
