Fig. 3: Acoustic technologies for tissue development.

a Perfusion bioreactors and capillary-based acoustic resonators assemble human articular chondrocytes to form cartilage tissue after long-term culture. The figures were reprinted and modified from ref. ⁸⁰ with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry. b A multilayered membrane-like architecture is fabricated by a multiwavelength acoustic resonator and then cultured to form endothelial cell networks within collagen hydrogels. The figures were reprinted and modified from ref. ⁸² with permission from The Company of Biologists Ltd. c The use of Faraday wave patterns to fabricate heterogeneous multicellular membrane-like constructs. The figures were reprinted and modified from ref. ⁸⁶ by John Wiley and Sons. d Hologram structures are used as acoustic masks to engineer the transmitted acoustic waves and form the designed pressure pattern. The figures were reprinted and modified from ref. ⁹² with permission from Springer Nature, ref. ⁹⁴ with permission from John Wiley and Sons, and ref. ⁹⁵ with permission from the American Chemical Society