Table 1 Cross-species anxiety tests and their potential application.

Elevated plus maze (EPM) [76]

Lorazepam

Procedure: yes

Behaviour: yes

Physiology: N/A

GABAergic drugs, potentially anxiogenic drugs

Potentially (effects of anxiogenic substances, sex differences)

Open field test [81, 84, 86]

N/A

Procedure: yes

Behaviour: yes

Physiology: N/A

N/A

Potentially (differentiating clinical groups)

No consistent relation to self-reported anxiety across samples

Operant conflict tests: AAC decision test [27, 57, 94, 95]

N/A

Procedure: partly

Behaviour: partly

Physiology: AAC fMRI signal in conflict > non-conflict trials (by comparison with a macaque version [27] that is itself validated with diazepam [24])

N/A

Potentially (sex differences)

Operant conflict test: AAC scoop & run test [18, 33, 39, 40]

HC lesions (by comparison with other approach-avoidance conflict tests)

Procedure: partly

Behaviour: partly

Physiology: HC gamma oscillations and theta HC-PFC synchronisation (by comparison with other approach-avoidance conflict tests)

N/A

Potentially

Mixed open field/operant conflict test: AAC stay & play test [11, 17, 58, 96]

GABAergic drugs (lorazepam, pregabalin, valproate), HC lesions (by comparison with other approach-avoidance conflict tests)

Procedure: partly

Behaviour: partly

Physiology: N/A

GABAergic drugs

Potentially (stable individual differences in behavioural disposition. No relation to self-reported anxiety in large sample

Unpredictable shock anticipation (NPU test) [107,108,109,110,111, 113,114,115,116,117]

Alprazolam

Procedure: yes

Behaviour: yes

Physiology: N/A

GABAergic drugs, SSRIs

Yes (distinguishes PTSD, SAD, SP, PD from HC, GAD, MDD, relates to symptom severity in trauma-exposed people)

Social intrusion test [118,119,120,121,122,123,124,125,126]

N/A

Procedure: yes

Behaviour: yes

Physiology: N/A

N/A

Yes (stable individual differences, heritability, risk factor for anxiety disorders)