Table 4 Multi-level analysis to examine the association between total costs (€, 2016 prices) at 5 years of age and gestational age at birth (generalised linear model)a,b,c.

From: Economic costs at age five associated with very preterm birth: multinational European cohort study

   

Sensitivity analyses excluding diagnosis of BPD and any neonatal morbidity

Sensitivity analyses excluding diagnosis of BPD, any neonatal morbidity and presence of a congenital anomaly

 

Total health and social care services costs per childd

Total societal costs per child

Total health and social care services costs per childd

Total societal costs per child

Total health and social care services costs per childd

Total societal costs per child

Perinatal characteristics

 Gestational age (ref. 30–31 weeks)

   <26

1920.63***

2755.98***

2908.22***

4577.41***

2858.57***

4236.51***

 

(520.31)

(707.71)

(742.44)

(983.53)

(760.86)

(994.12)

   26–27

490.93**

752.34**

789.06***

1427.76***

876.90***

1514.57***

 

(170.03)

(282.32)

(216.11)

(343.76)

(243.89)

(383.60)

 28–29

418.67**

657.09**

525.08***

832.38***

471.20**

801.29**

 

(136.14)

(233.56)

(150.83)

(237.61)

(146.40)

(249.53)

SGA (ref >10th centile)

  ≤10th centile

212.29

307.9

243.35*

349.04

320.69*

420.35

 

(125.01)

(228.03)

(123.98)

(226.75)

(136.41)

(238.81)

BPD (ref: none)

 Yes

788.94**

1128.05**

    
 

(261.05)

(408.98)

    

Severe congenital anomalies (ref: none)

  Yes

1257.74**

3112.72***

1245.99**

3093.42***

  
 

(389.97)

(773.21)

(393.11)

(783.60)

  

Any morbidity (ref: none)

  Yes

1467.31***

3233.58***

    
 

(395.47)

(697.97)

    

Sex (ref: female)

  Male

674.37***

1226.62***

536.18***

1195.17***

548.00***

1126.70***

 

(164.96)

(243.35)

(147.37)

(249.51)

(155.33)

(264.46)

Sociodemographic characteristics

 Household employment status (ref: employed)

   At least one parent unemployed

239.81

426.28

253.00

1047.42*

235.13

1082.34*

 

(197.78)

(378.60)

(194.76)

(454.73)

(195.44)

(478.32)

  Maternal education (ref: higher education)

      

 High school or less

256.48*

625.17**

374.41**

744.56***

360.95**

666.95**

 

(119.16)

(218.60)

(129.07)

(225.94)

(131.32)

(232.67)

Country of birth for mothers (ref: native)

  European born

79.75

−477.84

−276.23

−669.16

−364.99

−911.15*

 

(279.06)

(428.14)

(216.82)

(384.38)

(216.71)

(379.55)

  Non-European born

−552.79***

−577.29*

−574.66***

−431.75

−622.14***

−543.01

 

(162.64)

(282.16)

(165.87)

(293.31)

(177.83)

(299.58)

Mother age at childbirth (ref. 25–34 years)

  <25

260.95

493.15

259.29

729.02

299.15

824.27

 

(195.35)

(368.39)

(190.96)

(393.84)

(201.54)

(421.28)

  >34

303.08*

671.45**

223.50

538.50*

195.46

451.82

 

(139.89)

(259.00)

(126.80)

(244.42)

(126.19)

(246.18)

Parity (ref: multiparous)

 

−95.08

−52.68

−143.38

−41.63

−181.20

−46.74

 

(113.69)

(211.56)

(113.06)

(207.83)

(118.25)

(213.47)

Multiple (ref: singleton)

  Twins

−96.95

−383.66

−26.26

−192.33

−99.09

−369.79

 

(111.53)

(213.93)

(108.68)

(217.18)

(109.18)

(221.39)

  Triplets or quadruplets

222.33

−809.38

179.31

−801.25

390.44

−600.09

 

(341.46)

(439.62)

(321.05)

(430.76)

(375.19)

(484.86)

  1. Standard errors in parentheses.
  2. SGA small for gestational age, BPD bronchopulmonary dysplasia.
  3. Morbidity: intraventricular haemorrhage grades III–IV (IVH), periventricular leukomalacia (PVL), retinopathy of prematurity stages III–V (ROP), or necrotising enterocolitis needing surgery (NEC).
  4. *p < 0.05.
  5. **p < 0.01.
  6. ***p < 0.001.
  7. aVariance of the intercept in the multi-level model is 0.07.
  8. bp value for LR test is <0.001 for 1) and 2), which means there is significant difference between a single-level model and multi-level model.
  9. cNegative binomial family with log link was used for this GLM.
  10. dThis variable excludes expenses incurred by parents and valuation of work absences.
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