Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Basic Science Article
  • Published:

Long-term multi-organ system abnormalities in mice exposed to antenatal and postnatal corticosteroids

Pediatric Research (2025)Cite this article

Abstract

Background

Exogenous corticosteroid exposure is common in premature infants and can interfere with normal developmental processes. It remains unknown if there are long-term alterations to cardiometabolic health following antenatal corticosteroid (ANCS) plus postnatal corticosteroid (PNCS) exposure.

Methods

Pregnant mice received intraperitoneal (IP) injections of dexamethasone 0.5 mg/kg on gestational days 15–16. Pups delivered naturally. On postnatal days (PD) 1–3, offspring received IP injections of dexamethasone 1.2 mg/kg or saline control. On PD 90, offspring were euthanized and organs harvested for study.

Results

Compared to ANCS alone, offspring exposed to ANCS + PNCS had decreased body weights, and lungs had alveolar simplification with increased mean linear intercept and decreased radial alveolar count. Exposure to ANCS + PNCS increased cardiomyocyte diameter compared to ANCS alone. Mice exposed to ANCS + PNCS had attenuation in liver mRNA levels in genes responsible for energy homeostasis including adiponectin, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha, and sirtuin 1, and alterations in free fatty acids.

Conclusions

Young adult mice exposed to ANCS + PNCS compared to ANCS alone have evidence of lung simplification, cardiomyocyte hypertrophy, and metabolism-related gene alterations in liver. This study is limited by the lack of a control group with no exposure to corticosteroids.

Impact

  • Antenatal + short course of postnatal corticosteroid exposure (3 days) results in long-term multi-organ system changes in adult mice.

  • Mice exposed to antenatal + postnatal corticosteroids exhibit impaired alveolarization, cardiomyocyte hypertrophy, and metabolic alterations in young adulthood.

  • Corticosteroids are a common exposure in premature infants and may contribute to long-term morbidities in this population.

Access through your institution
Buy or subscribe

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Access through your institution

Buy this article

  • Purchase on SpringerLink
  • Instant access to full article PDF
Buy now

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Fig. 1: Body weight is decreased in adult mice exposed to ANCS + PNCS.
Fig. 2: Alveolarization is decreased in mice exposed to ANCS + PNCS.
Fig. 3: Cardiomyocyte diameter is increased in mice exposed to ANCS + PNCS.
Fig. 4: Liver metabolic markers are decreased in mice exposed to ANCS + PNCS.
Fig. 5: Liver FFA are decreased in mice exposed to ACS + PCS.

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

Data are available by written request to jdillard@akronchildrens.org.

References

  1. Crump, C. An overview of adult health outcomes after preterm birth. Early Hum. Dev. 150, 105187, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2020.105187 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  2. Lurbe, E. & Ingelfinger, J. Developmental and early life origins of cardiometabolic risk factors: novel findings and implications. Hypertension 77, 308–318, https://doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.120.14592 (2021).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Rog-Zielinska, E. A., Richardson, R. V., Denvir, M. A. & Chapman, K. E. Glucocorticoids and foetal heart maturation; implications for prematurity and foetal programming. J. Mol. Endocrinol. 52, R125–R135, https://doi.org/10.1530/JME-13-0204 (2014).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Asztalos, E. Antenatal corticosteroids: a risk factor for the development of chronic disease. J. Nutr. Metab. 2012, 930591, https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/930591 (2012).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  5. Busada, J. T. & Cidlowski, J. A. Mechanisms of glucocorticoid action during development. Curr. Top. Dev. Biol. 125, 147–170, https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.ctdb.2016.12.004 (2017).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Braun, T., Challis, J. R., Newnham, J. P. & Sloboda, D. M. Early-life glucocorticoid exposure: the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, placental function, and long-term disease risk. Endocr. Rev. 34, 885–916, https://doi.org/10.1210/er.2013-1012 (2013).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Committee on Obstetric, P Committee opinion No. 713: antenatal corticosteroid therapy for fetal maturation. Obstet. Gynecol. 130, e102–e109, https://doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000002237 (2017).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Kemp, M. W. et al. Efficacy and safety of antenatal steroids. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 315, R825–R839, https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.00193.2017 (2018).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  9. Roberts, D., Brown, J., Medley, N. & Dalziel, S. R. Antenatal corticosteroids for accelerating fetal lung maturation for women at risk of preterm birth. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 3, CD004454, https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD004454.pub3 (2017).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Doyle, L. W., Cheong, J. L., Hay, S., Manley, B. J. & Halliday, H. L. Late (>/= 7 days) systemic postnatal corticosteroids for prevention of bronchopulmonary dysplasia in preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 11, CD001145, https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD001145.pub5 (2021).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Lok, I. M. et al. Effects of postnatal corticosteroids on lung development in newborn animals. A systematic review. Pediatr. Res. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41390-024-03114-6 (2024).

  12. Harris, C. et al. Postnatal dexamethasone exposure and lung function in adolescents born very prematurely. PLoS One 15, e0237080, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0237080 (2020).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  13. Vrselja, A., Pillow, J. J. & Black, M. J. Effect of preterm birth on cardiac and cardiomyocyte growth and the consequences of antenatal and postnatal glucocorticoid treatment. J. Clin. Med. 10 https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10173896 (2021).

  14. Festing, M. F. & Altman, D. G. Guidelines for the design and statistical analysis of experiments using laboratory animals. ILAR J. 43, 244–258, https://doi.org/10.1093/ilar.43.4.244 (2002).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Li, H., Yuan, X., Tang, J. & Zhang, Y. Lipopolysaccharide disrupts the directional persistence of alveolar myofibroblast migration through EGF receptor. Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell Mol. Physiol. 302, L569–L579, https://doi.org/10.1152/ajplung.00217.2011 (2012).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Cooney, T. P. & Thurlbeck, W. M. The radial alveolar count method of Emery and Mithal: a reappraisal 1–postnatal lung growth. Thorax 37, 572–579, https://doi.org/10.1136/thx.37.8.572 (1982).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  17. Emery, J. L. & Mithal, A. The number of alveoli in the terminal respiratory unit of man during late intrauterine life and childhood. Arch. Dis. Child 35, 544–547, https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.35.184.544 (1960).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  18. Xu, J. et al. GDF15/MIC-1 functions as a protective and antihypertrophic factor released from the myocardium in association with SMAD protein activation. Circ. Res. 98, 342–350, https://doi.org/10.1161/01.RES.0000202804.84885.d0 (2006).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Wallner, M. et al. Acute catecholamine exposure causes reversible myocyte injury without cardiac regeneration. Circ. Res 119, 865–879, https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.116.308687 (2016).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  20. Hillman, N. H. et al. Dose of budesonide with surfactant affects lung and systemic inflammation after normal and injurious ventilation in preterm lambs. Pediatr. Res. 88, 726–732, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41390-020-0809-6 (2020).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  21. Cummings, J. J., Pramanik, A. K., Committee On, F. & Newborn. Postnatal corticosteroids to prevent or treat chronic lung disease following preterm birth. Pediatrics 149 https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2022-057530 (2022).

  22. Jobe, A. H., Milad, M. A., Peppard, T. & Jusko, W. J. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of intramuscular and oral betamethasone and dexamethasone in reproductive age women in India. Clin. Transl. Sci. 13, 391–399, https://doi.org/10.1111/cts.12724 (2020).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Tijsseling, D. et al. Neonatal corticosteroid therapy affects growth patterns in early infancy. PLoS One 13, e0192162, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0192162 (2018).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. Regan, F. M., Cutfield, W. S., Jefferies, C., Robinson, E. & Hofman, P. L. The impact of early nutrition in premature infants on later childhood insulin sensitivity and growth. Pediatrics 118, 1943–1949, https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2006-0733 (2006).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Singhal, A. Early nutrition and long-term cardiovascular health. Nutr. Rev. 64, S44–S49, https://doi.org/10.1301/nr.2006.may.s44-s49 (2006). discussion S72-91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Singhal, A., Cole, T. J., Fewtrell, M., Deanfield, J. & Lucas, A. Is slower early growth beneficial for long-term cardiovascular health? Circulation 109, 1108–1113, https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000118500.23649.DF (2004).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Qin, G. et al. Postnatal dexamethasone, respiratory and neurodevelopmental outcomes at two years in babies born extremely preterm. PLoS One 12, e0181176, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0181176 (2017).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  28. Harris, C. et al. Effect of dexamethasone exposure on the neonatal unit on the school age lung function of children born very prematurely. PLoS One 13, e0200243, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0200243 (2018).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  29. Evans, N. Cardiovascular effects of dexamethasone in the preterm infant. Arch. Dis. Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 70, F25–F30, https://doi.org/10.1136/fn.70.1.f25 (1994).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  30. Gill, A. W., Warner, G. & Bull, L. Iatrogenic neonatal hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Pediatr. Cardiol. 17, 335–339, https://doi.org/10.1007/s002469900075 (1996).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Werner, J. C. et al. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy associated with dexamethasone therapy for bronchopulmonary dysplasia. J. Pediatr. 120, 286–291, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0022-3476(05)80446-9 (1992).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Zecca, E. et al. Cardiac adverse effects of early dexamethasone treatment in preterm infants: a randomized clinical trial. J. Clin. Pharm. 41, 1075–1081, https://doi.org/10.1177/00912700122012670 (2001).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Skelton, R., Gill, A. B. & Parsons, J. M. Cardiac effects of short course dexamethasone in preterm infants. Arch. Dis. Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 78, F133–F137, https://doi.org/10.1136/fn.78.2.f133 (1998).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  34. Ohning, B. L., Fyfe, D. A. & Riedel, P. A. Reversible obstructive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy after dexamethasone therapy for bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Am. Heart J. 125, 253–256, https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-8703(93)90089-r (1993).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. de Vries, W. B. et al. Alterations in adult rat heart after neonatal dexamethasone therapy. Pediatr. Res 52, 900–906, https://doi.org/10.1203/00006450-200212000-00015 (2002).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Bal, M. P. et al. Histopathological changes of the heart after neonatal dexamethasone treatment: studies in 4-, 8-, and 50-week-old rats. Pediatr. Res 66, 74–79, https://doi.org/10.1203/PDR.0b013e3181a283a0 (2009).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Niu, Y., Herrera, E. A., Evans, R. D. & Giussani, D. A. Antioxidant treatment improves neonatal survival and prevents impaired cardiac function at adulthood following neonatal glucocorticoid therapy. J. Physiol. 591, 5083–5093, https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.2013.258210 (2013).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  38. Bal, M. P. et al. Long-term cardiovascular effects of neonatal dexamethasone treatment: hemodynamic follow-up by left ventricular pressure-volume loops in rats. J. Appl Physiol. (1985) 104, 446–450, https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00951.2007 (2008).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Kamphuis, P. J. et al. Reduced life expectancy in rats after neonatal dexamethasone treatment. Pediatr. Res 61, 72–76, https://doi.org/10.1203/01.pdr.0000249980.95264.dd (2007).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Jiang, X. et al. Effects of neonatal dexamethasone administration on cardiac recovery ability under ischemia-reperfusion in 24-wk-old rats. Pediatr. Res. 80, 128–135, https://doi.org/10.1038/pr.2016.54 (2016).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Cardoso, R. C. & Padmanabhan, V. Prenatal steroids and metabolic dysfunction: lessons from sheep. Annu. Rev. Anim. Biosci. 7, 337–360, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-animal-020518-115154 (2019).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Fowden, A. L., Giussani, D. A. & Forhead, A. J. Intrauterine programming of physiological systems: causes and consequences. Physiology (Bethesda) 21, 29–37, https://doi.org/10.1152/physiol.00050.2005 (2006).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Jellyman, J. K., Valenzuela, O. A. & Fowden, A. L. HORSE SPECIES SYMPOSIUM: glucocorticoid programming of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and metabolic function: Animal studies from mouse to horse. J. Anim. Sci. 93, 3245–3260, https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2014-8612 (2015).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Leone, T. C. et al. PGC-1alpha deficiency causes multi-system energy metabolic derangements: muscle dysfunction, abnormal weight control and hepatic steatosis. PLoS Biol. 3, e101, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0030101 (2005).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  45. Besse-Patin, A. et al. Estrogen signals through peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator 1alpha to reduce oxidative damage associated with diet-induced fatty liver disease. Gastroenterology 152, 243–256, https://doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2016.09.017 (2017).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Estall, J. L. et al. Sensitivity of lipid metabolism and insulin signaling to genetic alterations in hepatic peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator-1alpha expression. Diabetes 58, 1499–1508, https://doi.org/10.2337/db08-1571 (2009).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  47. Kleiner, S. et al. Development of insulin resistance in mice lacking PGC-1alpha in adipose tissues. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 109, 9635–9640, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1207287109 (2012).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  48. Lopez-Otin, C., Blasco, M. A., Partridge, L., Serrano, M. & Kroemer, G. The hallmarks of aging. Cell 153, 1194–1217, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2013.05.039 (2013).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  49. Zhang, Y. et al. Mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 accentuates aging-induced cardiac remodeling and contractile dysfunction: role of AMPK, Sirt1, and mitochondrial function. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 71, 208–220, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2014.03.018 (2014).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  50. Lemieux, H., Vazquez, E. J., Fujioka, H. & Hoppel, C. L. Decrease in mitochondrial function in rat cardiac permeabilized fibers correlates with the aging phenotype. J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci. 65, 1157–1164, https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/glq141 (2010).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Owesny, P. & Grune, T. The link between obesity and aging - insights into cardiac energy metabolism. Mech. Ageing Dev. 216, 111870. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mad.2023.111870 (2023).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Balsan, G. A., Vieira, J. L., Oliveira, A. M. & Portal, V. L. Relationship between adiponectin, obesity and insulin resistance. Rev. Assoc. Med. Bras. (1992) 61, 72–80, https://doi.org/10.1590/1806-9282.61.01.072 (2015).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Jung, U. J. & Choi, M. S. Obesity and its metabolic complications: the role of adipokines and the relationship between obesity, inflammation, insulin resistance, dyslipidemia and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 15, 6184–6223, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms15046184 (2014).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  54. Hulthe, J., Hulten, L. M. & Fagerberg, B. Low adipocyte-derived plasma protein adiponectin concentrations are associated with the metabolic syndrome and small dense low-density lipoprotein particles: atherosclerosis and insulin resistance study. Metabolism 52, 1612–1614, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0026-0495(03)00313-5 (2003).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Crume, T. L. et al. The long-term impact of intrauterine growth restriction in a diverse U.S. cohort of children: the EPOCH study. Obesity (Silver Spring) 22, 608–615, https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.20565 (2014).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Ordonez-Diaz, M. D. et al. Plasma adipokines profile in prepubertal children with a history of prematurity or extrauterine growth restriction. Nutrients 12 https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12041201 (2020).

  57. Dai, Y. et al. Prenatal prednisone exposure impacts liver development and function in fetal mice and its characteristics. Toxicol. Sci. 199, 63–80, https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kfae027 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Nair, A. B. & Jacob, S. A simple practice guide for dose conversion between animals and human. J. Basic Clin. Pharm. 7, 27–31, https://doi.org/10.4103/0976-0105.177703 (2016).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  59. Schittny, J. C. Development of the lung. Cell Tissue Res. 367, 427–444, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00441-016-2545-0 (2017).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  60. Nguyen, T. & Jordan, B. K. Let’s talk about dex: when do the benefits of dexamethasone for prevention of bronchopulmonary dysplasia outweigh the risks?. Newborn (Clarksville) 1, 91–96, https://doi.org/10.5005/jp-journals-11002-0009 (2022).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Dutta, S. & Sengupta, P. Men and mice: relating their ages. Life Sci. 152, 244–248, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2015.10.025 (2016).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Effect of corticosteroids for fetal maturation on perinatal outcomes NIH consensus development panel on the effect of corticosteroids for fetal maturation on perinatal outcomes. JAMA 273, 413–418, https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1995.03520290065031 (1995).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Kim, Y. E., Park, W. S., Sung, D. K., Ahn, S. Y. & Chang, Y. S. Antenatal betamethasone enhanced the detrimental effects of postnatal dexamethasone on hyperoxic lung and brain injuries in newborn rats. PLoS One 14, e0221847, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0221847 (2019).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  64. Ersek, A. et al. Strain dependent differences in glucocorticoid-induced bone loss between C57BL/6J and CD-1 mice. Sci. Rep. 6, 36513. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep36513 (2016).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  65. Hodes, G. E. et al. Strain differences in the effects of chronic corticosterone exposure in the hippocampus. Neuroscience 222, 269–280, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.06.017 (2012).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Shelton, E. L. et al. Effects of antenatal betamethasone on preterm human and mouse ductus arteriosus: comparison with baboon data. Pediatr. Res. 84, 458–465, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41390-018-0006-z (2018).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  67. Zhang, H. et al. The angiogenic factor midkine is regulated by dexamethasone and retinoic acid during alveolarization and in alveolar epithelial cells. Respir. Res. 10, 77, https://doi.org/10.1186/1465-9921-10-77 (2009).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  68. Krishnan, A. et al. A detailed comparison of mouse and human cardiac development. Pediatr. Res. 76, 500–507, https://doi.org/10.1038/pr.2014.128 (2014).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  69. Wessels, A. & Sedmera, D. Developmental anatomy of the heart: a tale of mice and man. Physiol. Genom. 15, 165–176, https://doi.org/10.1152/physiolgenomics.00033.2003 (2003).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Kaffe, E. et al. Humanized mouse liver reveals endothelial control of essential hepatic metabolic functions. Cell 186, 3793–3809 e3726, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2023.07.017 (2023).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  71. Vickers, M. H. Developmental programming and transgenerational transmission of obesity. Ann. Nutr. Metab. 64, 26–34, https://doi.org/10.1159/000360506 (2014).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Buescher, J. L. et al. Evidence for transgenerational metabolic programming in Drosophila. Dis. Model Mech. 6, 1123–1132, https://doi.org/10.1242/dmm.011924 (2013).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  73. Zhu, Z., Cao, F. & Li, X. Epigenetic programming and fetal metabolic programming. Front Endocrinol. (Lausanne) 10, 764, https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2019.00764 (2019).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

This study was funded by grants from the Saint Louis University School of Medicine President’s Research Fund and Cardinal Glennon Children’s Foundation. The funders played no role in the design, analysis, and reporting of the study.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Neonatology, Akron Children’s Hospital, Akron, OH, USA

    Julie A. Dillard

  2. Division of Neonatology, Cardinal Glennon Children’s Hospital, Saint Louis University, Saint Louis, MO, USA

    Emily X. Royse & Noah H. Hillman

Authors
  1. Julie A. Dillard
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Emily X. Royse
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Noah H. Hillman
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

Conception and design: Julie Dillard, Noah Hillman; Acquisition of data: Julie Dillard, Emily Royse; Analysis and interpretation of data: Julie Dillard, Emily Royse, Noah Hillman; Manuscript preparation: Julie Dillard, Emily Royse, Noah Hillman; All authors approved the final manuscript as submitted.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Julie A. Dillard.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary information

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Dillard, J.A., Royse, E.X. & Hillman, N.H. Long-term multi-organ system abnormalities in mice exposed to antenatal and postnatal corticosteroids. Pediatr Res (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41390-025-04373-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41390-025-04373-7

Search

Advanced search

Quick links