Table 3 Role of autophagy in CRC

Epithelial cell

Inhibits tumorigenesis

Eliminates harmful intestinal microbacteria and ROS

^{25,26,– 27}

Promotes development of CAC and resistance to chemotherapy

Promotes cancer cell proliferation and survival and protects the stemness and chemoresistance of colorectal CSCs

^{28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,– 37}

Intestinal macrophage

Inhibits tumorigenesis

Degrades NLRP3 and inhibits M2 polarization

^{52,53,– 54}

Tumor-associated macrophage

Controversial

Increases radiosensitivity by inducing colon cancer cell apoptosis or promotes colon cancer development by inducing M2-type polarization of TAMs

^{55, 56}

Neutrophil

Promotes tumor migration

Produces pro-metastatic oncostatin M and MMP9

⁵⁸

NK cell

NA

DC

NA

T cell

Inhibits tumorigenesis

Decreases CD4⁺T cells that produce IL-17A and IL-13 and CD8⁺T cells that produce IFN-γ; increases Tregs

⁸⁶

Endothelial cell

Promotes or inhibits tumor neovascularization

Depends on the autophagy molecules and microenvironment

^{88,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,– 96}

Mesenchymal cell

Promotes tumorigenesis and cancer development

Produces high-energy mitochondrial fuels

^{101,102,– 103}