Fig. 1

Cu–Cy NP-based X-ray-induced oxidative and antitumor immune responses in melanoma. a Schematic illustration of Cu–Cy NPs to simultaneously enable radiotherapy, oxidative therapy, and immunotherapy for melanoma treatment. b Morphological images of B16 cells incubated with Cu–Cy NPs (~40 nm) upon X-ray irradiation (0 or 2.5 Gy) revealed significant damage to the cellular morphology in the Cu–Cy NP plus X-ray group compared to the other groups. c Cell viability of the B16 cells incubated with different concentrations of Cu–Cy NPs upon 2.5 Gy X-ray irradiation. Data are presented as the mean ± SD. Error bars denote the S.D. d Intracellular ROS were significantly increased when the B16 cells were treated with Cu–Cy and X-rays compared to that of other groups. e, f The highest cell apoptosis and/or necrosis rates were found when the B16 cells were treated with Cu–Cy and X-rays compared to those of the other groups. Data are presented as the mean ± SD. Error bars denote the S.D. g Tumor volumes in different groups at the end of treatment. h Tumor growth curves in different groups. Data are presented as the mean ± SD. Error bars denote the S.D. (n = 6). i–k Tumor tissues were removed from the mice to detect changes in the infiltrative immune cells by flow cytometry. i The percentage of CD8⁺T cells was significantly enhanced in spleens when the mice were treated with Cu–Cy and X-rays compared to those of the other groups. Data are presented as the mean ± SD. Error bars denote the S.D. P-value vs. the PBS group. (n = 6). j, k The percentages of CD8⁺T and NK cells in tumor tissues when the mice were treated with Cu–Cy and X-rays compared to those of the other groups. Data are presented as the mean ± SD. Error bars denote the S.D. P-value vs. the PBS group. (n = 6)