Table 1 Characteristics of reviewed RNA modifications

m⁶A

mRNA

METTL3/14, WTAP, VIRMA, HAIKAI, ZC3H13, METTL16, RBM15/15B

FTO, ALKBH5

YTHDF1-3, YTHDC1-2, IGF2BP1-3, HNRNPC/G/A2B1, eIF3, PRRC2A, SND1, FMR1, LRPPRC

Regulates transcription, maturation, localization, translation and degradation.

⁶⁸

rRNA

ZCCHC4, METTL5

N.A.

N.A.

Promotes global translation.

^26,27

snRNA

METTL16

FTO

N.A.

Regulates snRNA pre-mRNA splicing.

³¹

snoRNA

METTL3/14

N.A.

N.A.

Regulates pre-lncRNA splicing.

⁶⁹

miRNA

METTL3/14

FTO

HNRNPA2B1

Regulates pri-miRNA processing.

⁷⁰

lncRNA

METTL3/14, WTAP

FTO ALKBH5

YTHDF1, YTHDF2, IGF2BP1, IGF2BP2

Regulates generation, structure, distribution, function, metabolism.

⁷²

circRNA

METTL3/14

ALKBH5, FTO

YTHDF2, YTHDF3

Regulates generation, distribution, function, translation, metabolism.

⁶⁶

eRNA

N.A.

N.A.

YTHDC1

Activates enhancer.

⁴⁵²

m⁵C

mRNA

NSUN2/6

N.A.

ALYREF, YBX1, FMRP

Modulates stability, export, translation and promotes mRNA-dependent repair.

^90,106,107

tRNA

NSUN2/3/6, DNMT2

ALKBH1, TETs

N.A.

Regulates tRNA structure and stability to ensure translation accuracy.

⁷⁸

rRNA

NSUN1/3/4/5

N.A.

YTHDF2

Stabilizes ribosome structural conformation to ensure translation fidelity.

^86,104

vtRNA

NSUN2

N.A.

N.A.

Promotes small-vault RNAs generation.

¹⁰⁶

eRNA

NSUN7

N.A.

N.A.

Protects target RNAs from degradation.

⁸⁸

miRNA

NSUN2

N.A.

N.A.

Affects miRNA maturation.

⁴⁵³

lncRNA

NSUN2

N.A.

N.A.

Increases stability.

⁴⁵⁴

m¹A

mRNA

TRMT6/61A/10C

ALKBH3

YTHDF1-3, YTHDC1

Regulates translation.

^115,125,126

tRNA

TRMT6/61A/61B/10B/10C

FTO, ALKBH1/3/7

N.A.

Stabilizes tRNA structure and promotes translational initiation.

^113,116

rRNA

NML, TRMT61B

N.A.

N.A.

Maintain ribosomal structure and function.

¹¹⁸

m⁷G

mRNA

METTL1, RNMT

N.A.

eIF4E, CBC

Regulates mRNA transcription elongation, slicing, export, translation and degradation.

^127,147

tRNA

METTL1, WDR4

N.A.

N.A.

Regulates tRNA structural integrity to promotes stability, translation ability and reduce ribosome pausing.

^133,148

rRNA

WBSCR22, TRM112

N.A.

N.A.

Promotes ribosome biogenesis.

⁴⁵⁵

snRNA

N.A.

TGS1

N.A.

For further methylation.

⁴⁵⁶

snoRNA

N.A.

TGS1, H29K

N.A.

For further methylation.

^456,457

miRNA

METTL1

N.A.

N.A.

Enhances miRNA processing via affecting pri-miRNA structure.

¹³⁵

ac⁴C

mRNA

NAT10

N.A.

N.A.

Promotes mRNA stability and promote protein translation.

^158,168,169

tRNA

NAT10

N.A.

N.A.

Enhances its stability and indicates eukaryotic tRNA maturation.

^166,167

rRNA

NAT10

N.A.

N.A.

Boosts ribosome synthesis, and influences mRNA translation ability.

¹⁶⁰

Ψ

mRNA

DKC1, PUS1/7, TRUB1/2, RPUSD3/4

N.A.

N.A.

Affects multiple steps in translation that could impact fidelity.

^176,178

tRNA

PUS1/3/7/10, TRUB1/2, RPUSD4

N.A.

N.A.

Maintains stable tRNA structure and mediate tRNA codon-anticodon base pairing to regulate translation.

^175,176,182

rRNA

DKC1, PUS7, TRUB2, RPUSD3/4

N.A.

N.A.

Critical for rRNA folding and controls translational fidelity.

¹⁸⁶

snRNA

PUS1/3/7, TRUB1, H/ACA snoRNPs

N.A.

N.A.

Influence structure, RNA-RNA or RNA-RBP interaction to function in pre-mRNA splicing.

¹⁷²

Uridylation

mRNAs

TUT4, TUT7

N.A.

LSM1-7, DIS3L2, La

Promotes mRNA decay.

^202,227

miRNA

TUT4, TUT7

N.A.

DIS3L2

Regulates miRNA biogenesis and degradation, affects miRNAs recognizing or interacting with target sites.

^{220,221,222,223,224,226}

gRNAs

RET1/2

N.A.

N.A.

Initiates and promotes gRNA maturation.

^217,458

snRNA

TUT1

N.A.

N.A.

Promotes stabilization and maturation

²⁰⁶

Viral RNA

TUT4, TUT7

N.A.

N.A.

Facilitates target genes degradation and involves in antiviral defense.

²³⁰

A-to-I editing

mRNA

ADAR1-3

N.A.

N.A.

Regulates mRNA transport, translation, and degradation and pre-mRNA splicing.

^{259,268,269,270,271,275,459}

tRNA

ADAR1-3

N.A.

N.A.

Preserves translational accuracy

^{239,243,244,245,246,247}

miRNA

ADAR1/2

N.A.

N.A.

Influence the biogenesis and function of miRNAs.

^241,459,460

lncRNA

ADAR1/2

N.A.

N.A.

Disrupts its interaction with genomic DNA or RNA.

^461,462

Viral RNA

ADAR1-3

N.A.

N.A.

Alters dsRNA structure, thereby suppressing innate immune responses.

^459,463