Fig. 2

The ten hallmarks of aging are subdivided into three categories: molecular hallmarks (genomic instability, telomere dysfunction, epigenetic alterations, loss of proteostasis, compromise of autophagy, and mitochondrial dysfunction), cellular hallmarks (cellular senescence, stem cell exhaustion, and altered intercellular communication), and systemic alterations (deregulated nutrient sensing). AMPK protein kinase AMP-activated catalytic subunit alpha 1, ATG5: autophagy-related 5, ATG-7 autophagy-related 7, ATP adenosine triphosphate, BECN1 Beclin 1, ER endoplasmic reticulum stress, EVs extracellular vesicles, GBA gut–brain axis, HSF-1 heat shock factor-1, HSP heat shock protein, IGF insulin-like growth factor-1, mtDNA mitochondrial DNA, mRNA messenger RNA, mTOR mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase, ncRNA noncoding RNA, OXPHOS oxidative phosphorylation, Rb retinoblastoma, ROS, reactive oxygen species, SASP senescence-associated secretory phenotype