Fig. 4
From: Signaling pathways in Parkinson’s disease: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic interventions

DAMPs (e.g., α-synuclein) trigger an innate immune response upon interaction with pattern recognition receptors in microglial cells. Microglial activation then increases the amount of NF-κB and NLRP3, leading to subsequent cytokine upregulation. Gut dysbiosis sends signals to the CNS and enteric nervous system via metabolites, hormones, and the immune system, thus mediating neuroinflammation