Fig. 2

Scheme of the biological effects of phototherapy. a Major mechanisms of PDT and PTT-induced regulated cell death modalities, including apoptosis, pyroptosis, necroptosis, ferroptosis, and cuproptosis. b PDT and PTT affect the vascular system during the process. Low-dose or short-duration PTT can transiently increase blood flow and oxygenation levels within tumors, thereby enhancing the antitumor efficacy of PDT. However, high-intensity or prolonged PTT can cause thermal damage and collapse of the tumor vasculature, reducing blood perfusion and oxygen saturation within the tumor, which may diminish the therapeutic effects of PDT. PDT induces vasoconstriction, vascular damage, and inhibition of tumor angiogenesis through the release of various vasoactive compounds. This vascular damage can exacerbate tumor hypoxia, further reducing the efficacy of PDT. RCD regulated cell death. MOMP mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization. LPO lipid peroxidation. The figure was created with BioRender.com