Table 1 A comprehensive overview of the advantages and disadvantages associated with various generations of phototherapeutic agents

From: Phototherapy in cancer treatment: strategies and challenges

Categories

PTs

Strengths

Limitations

Nobel metal NPs

Au nanorods

1). High tunability

2). The optical properties depend on the shapes, sizes, and atomic quantities.

3). High surface area

4). Good biocompatibility

5). Stable under irradiation

6). Facile surface modification

7). High extinction coefficient

1). The long-term toxicity and systemic toxicity of nanomaterials require further investigation.

2). The penetration ability of nanomaterials within heterogeneous tumor tissues needs more exploration.

3). Nanosensitizers have yet to effectively address the reduced efficacy of PDT caused by the tumor’s hypoxic microenvironment and inadequate light penetration in deep tissues.

4). Composite nanomaterials with multiple strategies require complex synthesis processes, have low reproducibility rates, and cannot be mass-produced.

Au nanoshells

Au nanoechinus

Au nanoclusters

Semiconductor photocatalyst nanoparticles

TiO2

1). NIR light excitation, providing enhanced tissue penetration.

2). Good biocompatibility.

3). Flexible optical properties

ZnO

BiVO4

g-C3N4

Carbon-based nanomaterials

Carbon nanotubes

1). Generation of ROS even in hypoxic TME.

2). Ease of surface functionalization.

2). Good biocompatibility.

3). High stability and low photobleaching.

Graphene

Oxidized graphene

Fullerene

2D nanomaterials

2D-LDH

1). Enhanced optical and electrical properties.

2). Large surface area-to-volume ratio.

3). Good biocompatibility.

4). Tunable bandgap with layers independence

2D-TMDCs

TMOs

MXene

2D-MOF

BP

SACs

AIEgens

CdSe

Addressing the low ROS production caused by the aggregation quenching of traditional PSs.

CdTe

QD

SQDs

1). Strong light absorption capacity and high ROS generation ratio.

2). Broad excitation spectra, narrow emission spectra, and large Stokes shifts.

3). Size and composition tunable emission.

4). Ease of surface modification.

5). Great molar extinction coefficients.

6). Good stability

CQDs

CND

GDQs

Cu-Cy

Cu-Cy

1). can be excited by X-rays, ultrasound, microwaves.

2). can undergo Fenton-like reactions with H2O2 to produce ROS.

  1. Au aurum, TiO2 titanium dioxide, ZnO zinc oxide, BiVO4 bismuth vanadium oxide, g-C3N4 graphitic carbon nitride, 2D two-dimensional, LDH layered double hydroxides, TMDCs transition metal dichalcogenides, TMOs transition metal oxides, MXene transition metal carbides, nitrides, and carbonitrides, MOF metal-organic framework, BP black phosphorus, SACs single-atom catalysts, AIEgens aggregation-induced emission agents, CdSe cadmium selenide, CdTe cadmium telluride, QD quantum dots, SQDs semiconductor-based dots, CQDs carbon quantum dots, CND carbon nanodots, GDQs graphene quantum dots, Cu-Cy Cu-cysteamine, ROS reactive oxygen species, TME tumor microenvironments, H2O2 hydrogen peroxide