Table 1 The heterogeneity of EVs (microvesicles and exosomes) parameters

Size distribution

30–1000 nm; overlap between exosomes and microvesicles

Biogenesis pathway, isolation methods

Affects separation strategies and purity assessment

Surface markers

Shared expression of CD9, CD63, CD81 across subtypes

Cell type, phenotypic changes

Impacts identification and subpopulation profiling

Cargo composition

Uneven distribution of proteins, RNA, DNA, and lipids

Parental cell state, environmental conditions

Determines functional effects and therapeutic indications

Biological function

e.g., Pro- or anti-inflammatory effects, immune modulation, metastasis

Cargo content, recipient cell interaction

Guides clinical use and therapeutic design

Method sensitivity

Varying detection or capture efficiencies across isolation and analysis tools

Instrument sensitivity, parameter selection

Contributes to interlab variability and reproducibility issues