Table 3 Rodent models of VPA exposure.

500 mg/kg i.p.

G9, G12.5, or G14.5

ICR(CD1) mice

↓ Distance and Entries in the center (OF) (for G12.5, in both sexes)

Kataoka et al.¹³⁷

↓ Time in open arms (EPM) (for G12.5, in both sexes)

↓ Social interaction (Sniffing) (for G12.5, in males)

↑ Social interaction (Sniffing) (for G12.5, in females)

↓ Spatial learning (MWM) (for G12.5)

800 mg/kg per os.

G11

Hybrid mice (C57BL/6, CF-1, Swiss, DBA/2)

↑ Latency to reach home bedding

Roullet et al.¹⁵⁸

↓ Social behavior (Nose pokes)

↓ Social novelty (Nose pokes)

200 mg/kg s.c.

G12–G17

BALB/c mice

= No major effects (Negative geotaxis, Surface righting, Balance beam).

Wagner et al.¹³³

↑ Delay (Surface and Mid-air righting) (in both sexes)

600 mg/kg s.c.

G13

↓ Latency to fall (Grip strength) (in both sexes)

↑ Locomotor activity

↓ Spatial learning (MWM) (in both sexes)

600 mg/kg s.c.

G12.5

Crl:Fcen:CF1 mice

↓ Juvenile play (Solicitations, sniffing, Following)

Campolongo et al.¹⁴⁷, Acosta et al.¹⁶⁷, Kazlaukas et al.¹⁶²

↑ Self-grooming

↓ Alternation and distance (Y-maze, EPM, OF)

= No effects (Affiliative and Non-social behaviors, Odor habituation, NOR, Light-dark test)

↓ Social preference and interaction (Sniffing) (in males)

↑ Immobility time (TST, FST)

↓ Temporal Accuracy and Precision (Interval timing)

500 mg/kg i.p.

G12.5

C57BL/6J mice

↑ Marble burying

Wu et al.¹⁶⁴

↓ Social interaction (time)

↓ Social preference (time)

↓ Learning (Negative Reinforcement Task)

600 mg/kg i.p.

G12.5

C57BL/6J mice

↑ Grooming and Digging time

Moldrich et al.¹⁴⁵

↓ Social interaction (time, nose pokes, approaches)

↓ Olfactory motivation

600 mg/kg s.c.

G13

C57BL/6Hsd mice

↓ Entries and Time in the center (OF)

Mehta et al.¹³⁸

↑ Self-grooming and Marble burying

800 mg/kg per os.

G9

Wistar rats

↓ Time of all pellet consumption and Exploration (Radial maze)

Narita et al.¹³⁶

↑ Locomotor activity without anxiety effects (OF)

= No effects (Social interaction)

600 mg/kg i.p.

G9

Wistar rats

↑ Time spent in empty compartment, ↑ Crossings between social compartments, ↓ Initiation of social approaches

Dufour-Rainfray et al.¹⁴⁹

800 mg/kg per gavage

G9

Wistar rats

↑ Locomotor activity (OF) (in light/sleep phase)

Tsujino et al.¹⁴¹

↑ Feeding (in light/sleep phase)

500 mg/kg i.p.

G11.5

Wistar Han rats

↑ Entries to the same arm (Y-maze)

Favre et al.¹⁶⁰

↓ Social preference (sniffing)

↑ Freezing (Pavlovian fear conditioning)

600 mg/kg i.p.

G12.5

Wistar rats

↑ Latency to reach home bedding (olfactory discrimination in pups)

Schneider and Przewłocki¹³⁴, Schneider et al.^139,140,152

↓ Angle of swim (in pups)

↑ Locomotor and Stereotypic behavior (in both sexes)

↓ Exploratory activity (Rearing and hole poking)

↓ Entries and Time in open arms (EPM) (in males)

↓ Sensorimotor gating (PPI)

↓ Social play and Social exploration behavior (in males)

= No effects (NOR)

500 mg/kg i.p.

G12.5

Wistar Han rats

↑ Entries to the same arm (Y-maze)

Markram et al.¹⁴²

↓ Time in open arms (EPM)

↓ Social interaction (sniffing, touching)

↓ Sensorimotor gating (PPI)

↑ Tone and Context memories, Generalization and Extinction (Fear conditioning)

= No effects (Locomotion, MWM)

500 mg/kg i.p.

G12.5

Wistar rats

↑ Time in closed arms (EPM) (in both sexes)

Edalatmanesh et al.¹⁴⁶

↑ Repetitive behavior and ↓ Alternation behavior (Y-maze) (in both sexes)

↓ Play behavior, Social exploration and contact (in both sexes)

↑ Spatial learning and memory (MWM) (in both sexes)

400 mg/kg s.c.

G12.5

Wistar rats

↓ Time in open arms (EPM)

Ellenbroek et al.¹⁵⁵

↑ Latency to feed (NSF)

↑ Sucrose consumption (Latent inhibition)

↓ Sensorimotor gating (PPI)

600 mg/kg i.p.

G12.5

Wistar rats

↓ Social exploration and preference

Bambini-Junior et al.¹⁴³

↑ Alternation delay (Y-maze)

= No effects (MWM)

600 mg/kg i.p.

G12.5

Wistar rats

↓ Time in the center (OF) (in both sexes)

Olexová et al.¹⁵⁶

400 mg/kg s.c.

G7, G9.5, G12 or G15

Sprague-Dawley rats

↓ Interaction to familiar and novel conspecifics (more robust for G12 exposure, in males)

Kim et al.^150,159

↓ Social preference (in males)

500 mg/kg per gavage

G11–13

Sprague-Dawley rats

↓ Ultrasonic vocalizations (in both sexes)

Barrett et al.¹⁵⁷

↓ Time in the center (OF) (in females)

↑ Baseline startle amplitude (in males)

↑ Startle response (after Fear conditioning) (in both sexes)

↓ Approach to a social stimulus (in both sexes)

↓ Novel social interaction (in males)

600 mg/kg i.p.

G12

Sprague-Dawley rats

↑ Freezing (Trace and Delay Fear conditioning)

Sui and Chen¹⁶⁵

500 mg/kg i.p.

G12.5

Sprague-Dawley rats

↓ Time in the center (OF)

Lin et al.¹⁵³

↓ Time in open arms (EPM)

↓ Social interaction (duration and frequency)

↑ Freezing (Contextual fear conditioning)

500 mg/kg i.p.

G12.5

Sprague-Dawley rats

↓ Ultrasonic vocalizations (in both sexes)

Gzielo et al.¹⁶³

600 mg/kg i.p.

G12.5

Sprague-Dawley rats

↑ Delays in Surface and Air righting reflexes, Negative geotaxis, Cliff aversion, Crawling and Visual placing reflex

Hou et al.¹³⁵

↓ Motor abilities (Swimming, Front limb suspension)

↑ Onset of auditory startle

↑ Self-grooming

↓ Center entries (OF)

↓ Social preference and interaction

↓ Novel social interaction

↓ Spatial learning (MWM)

500–600 mg/kg i.p.

G12.5

Sprague-Dawley rats

↑ Freezing (Fear conditioning)

Wang et al.¹⁶⁶, Banerjee et al.¹⁵⁴

↓ Entries and Distance traveled in the center (OF)

↓ Social interaction and Social visits

= No effects (NOR)

800 mg/kg per os.

G12

Long Evans rats

↓ Performance (T-maze) (in both sexes)

Mychasiuk et al.¹⁴⁴

↑ Time in open arms (EPM) (in both sexes)

↑ Interaction to familiar object (NOR) (in both sexes)

↑ Performance (Whishaw tray reaching test) (in males)

↓ Performance (Whishaw tray reaching test) (in females)

600 mg/kg i.p.

G12

Long Evans rats

↓ Sniffing (in females)

McKinnell et al.¹⁴⁸

↑ Self-grooming (in both sexes)

↑ Interaction to familiar object (NOR) (in males)

↓ Marble burying

↓ Performance (Set shifting task) (in both sexes, stronger effects in females)

800 mg/kg per os.

G12.5

Long Evans rats (females)

↓ Defensive rotation tactic and ↑ Standing tactic

Raza et al.¹⁶¹

↑ Frequency of Mounting, Head and Body shaking

↓ Ultrasonic vocalizations (at Social play)

= No effects (Playful attacks)

350 mg/kg i.p.

G13

Long Evans rats

↑ Social exploration and Play fighting (in adolescence)

Cohen et al.¹⁵¹

200–400 mg/kg s.c.

P14

BALB/c mice

= No effects (Grip strength, Balance beam, Locomotor activity) and ↑ Delay in Negative geotaxis and Mid-air righting

Wagner et al.¹³³

↓ Spatial learning (MWM) and ↑ Latency (Passive avoidance)

400 mg/kg s.c.

P14

BALB/c mice

↓ Social behaviors (allogrooming, crawl under/over, sniffing)

Yochum et al.¹⁷⁰

↓ Motor activity (in social environment)

↑ Locomotor activity

400 mg/kg s.c.

P14

C57BL/6J mice

↑ Time in open arms (EPM) (only in males)

Norton et al.¹⁶⁹

↓ Reversal learning (Water Y-maze)

↑ Social aggressions (only in males)

= No effects (Locomotion, Social approach, PPI, Allogrooming, Sniffing)

300 mg/kg s.c.

P2–P4

Sprague-Dawley rats

↑ Exploration (OF) and ↓ Entries and Time in open arms (EPM)

Mony et al.¹⁷¹

(twice/day on P2–P3 and once at P4)

↓ Social preference and interaction (Ttime spent, Sniffing, Grooming, Mounting, Crawling)

= No effects (Passive avoidance)

150 mg/kg/day i.p.

P6–P20

Sprague-Dawley rats

↑ Delay in eye opening

Chomiak et al.¹⁶⁸

↓ Social play (rough-and-tumble)

↑ Cue-dependent reward learning