Fig. 1

Schematic diagram of different cell communication modes. Among these modes, intracrine and autocrine involve signal transmission within the same cell (self-communication), whereas the other modes facilitate communication between different cells (cell-to-cell communication), either directly or indirectly. Direct cell-cell communication (juxtacrine) occurs through physical contact between two cells, either via ligand-receptor interactions on cell membranes or through intercellular structures like gap junctions and membrane nanotubes, which allow the exchange of diffusible signaling molecules. Meanwhile, indirect cell-cell communication involves the transmission of signaling molecules (ligands) over a certain distance from donor cells to recipient cells. For instance, paracrine signaling affects nearby cells over short distances through diffusion, while endocrine signaling uses blood circulation to transport hormones over long distances to their target cells. Synaptic/neurotransmitter communication involves the release of neurotransmitter from synaptic vesicles (SVs) into synapses, and vesicular-cell communication employs extracellular vehicles (EVs) to deliver signaling molecules to target cells