Table 2 Risk factors for head and neck cancer

Tobacco smoking in never-alcohol drinkers

Cigarette smoking vs never

OR 2.13 (1.53, 2.98)

Hashibe et al., 2007²⁹

Tobacco smoking by type of product

Cigarettes (+ dose response)

OR 3.46 (3.24, 3.70)

Wyss et al., 2013⁴⁷

Cigars (+ dose response)

OR 2.54 (1.93, 3.34)

Pipes (+ dose response)

OR 2.08 (1.55, 2.81)

Passive smoking

Home vs never

OR 1.60 (1.12, 2.28)

Lee et al., 2008⁴⁸

Work vs never

OR 1.55 (1.04, 2.30)

Smokeless tobacco

Snuff vs never

OR 1.71 (1.08, 2.70)

Wyss et al., 2016⁴⁹

Chewing tobacco vs never

OR 1.20 (0.81, 1.77)

Smokeless tobacco (oral cancer)

Gutka vs never

OR 8.67 (3.59, 20.93)*

Asthana et al., 2019⁵⁰

Pan/areca nut/lime/betel liquid

OR 7.18 (5.48, 9.41)*

Manipuri vs never

OR 3.32 (1.32, 8.36)*

Alcohol in never users of tobacco

Three or more drinks per day vs never

OR 2.04 (1.29, 3.21)

Hashibe et al., 2007²⁹

Alcohol beverage type

Wine >30 drinks/week vs never

OR 6.3 (2.2, 18.6)

Purdue et al., 2009⁵¹

Beer >30 drinks/week vs never

OR 5.4 (3.1, 9.2)

Liquor >30 drinks/week vs never

OR 3.6 (2.2, 5.8)

Combined effects of alcohol and drinking

Never users

OR 1.00 (Ref.)

Hashibe et al., 2009²⁷

Tobacco alone

OR 2.37 (1.66, 3.39)

PAR 33.0 (42.6, 25.9)

Alcohol alone

OR 1.06 (0.88, 1.28)

PAR 4.0 (1.5, 5.3)

Tobacco and alcohol joint effect

OR 5.73 (3.62, 9.06)

PAR 34.9 (17.2, 48.0)

Total

PAR 72.0 (61.2, 79.1)

Racial differences in alcohol risk

Never to <20 years

OR 1.00 (Ref.)

Voltzke et al., 2018⁵²

≥20 to 30 years

White 1.62 (1.36, 1.94)

Black 2.01 (1.07, 3.79)

≤30 years

White 1.38 (1.20, 1.58)

Black 2.20 (1.38, 3.50)

Marijuana

Ever use vs never

OR 0.88 (0.67, 1.16)

Berthiller et al., 2009⁵³

Diet - consumption of food items/types

High fruit vs low

OR 0.52 (0.43, 0.62)

Chuang et al., 2012³¹

High vegetables vs low

OR 0.66 (0.49, 0.90)

High red meat vs low

OR 1.40 (1.13, 1.74)

High processed meat vs low

OR 1.37 (1.14, 1.65)

Low (<18.5) vs normal

OR 1.69 (1.10, 2.50)

BMI (larynx)

Overweight/obese vs normal

OR 0.60 (0.3, 1.3)

Lubin et al., 2011²⁸

Recreational physical activity

Moderate vs none/low

OR 0.78 (0.66, 0.91)

Nicolotti et al., 2011³²

Diabetes

History of diabetes vs no history

OR 1.09 (0.95, 1.24)

Stott-Miller et al., 2012⁵⁴

Sexual behaviours (oropharyngeal cancer)

≥6 lifetime sexual partners vs 1

OR 1.25 (1.01, 1.54)

Heck et al., 2010³⁵

≥4 lifetime oral sex partners vs 0-1

OR 2.25 (1.42, 3.58)

HPV

Oropharynx tonsil HPV16 vs negative

OR 15.1 (6.8, 33.7)

Hobbs et al., 2006³⁴

Oropharynx other HPV16 vs negative

OR 4.3 (2.1, 8.9)

Oral cavity HPV16 vs negative

OR 2.0 (1.2, 3.4)

Larynx HPV16 vs negative

OR 2.0 (1.0, 4.2)

Oral health/hygiene

<5 missing teeth vs ≥missing teeth

OR 0.78 (0.74, 0.82)

Hashim et al., 2016³³

No gum disease vs gum disease

OR 0.94 (0.89, 0.99)

Annual dentist vs <once a year

OR 0.82 (0.78, 0.87)

Daily toothbrushing vs <once a day

OR 0.83 (0.79, 0.88)

Family history

First degree relative with HNC

OR 1.7 (1.2, 2.3)

Negri et al., 2009⁵⁵

Increased duration in occupations

Cooks

OR 1.36 (1.09, 1.68)

Khetan et al., 2019⁵⁶

Cleaners

OR 1.38 (1.13, 1.69)

Painters

OR 1.82 (1.42, 2.35)

Socioeconomic factors

Low vs high education

OR 2.50 (2.02, 3.09)

Conway et al., 2015⁵⁷

Low vs high income

OR 2.44 (1.62, 3.67)

Low vs high occupational socioeconomic status

OR 1.88 (1.64, 2.17)

Conway et al., 2021⁵⁸