Fig. 1

Testing the effects of early-life disruption of the microbiota on later-life resistance to infections. Juveniles were reared in one of four water treatments: pond water control (PW), sterile pond water only (SPW), sterile pond water and short-term antibiotics (STAB), or sterile pond water and long-term antibiotics (LTAB). Adult frogs were exposed to A. hamatospicula worms to quantify the lasting effect of the manipulated microbiota of juveniles on adult resistance to infections. Numbers represent sample sizes (i.e., number of individuals/number of tanks) for each time point. Photos by Mark Yokoyama