Fig. 5

Numerical modeling of the EHDL process. a The 2D model for the numerical EHDL simulation. b The simulated evolution of the nanovolcano structure. The inset shows the revolved version of the final profile (marked as “F”). c The simulation result obtained after lowering the viscosity of NOA73. The nanocrater in b merged at the center to transform the nanovolcano into a nanocone. d The simulation (dotted line) and experimental (solid lines) results exhibit good agreements