Fig. 1

Large-scale, integrated, and smart cell culture platform. a Photograph showing LISCCP. Scale bar: 2 cm. b Schematic illustration of the ultrathin sensors and stimulators transfer-printed to the 3D engineered substrate to be integrated with the wireless control system (left) and the exploded view of the ultrathin device layers (right). c–f Optical microscopic image of the impedance sensor/electrical stimulator (c), pH sensor (d), K⁺ sensor (e), and temperature sensor and heater (f). Scale bars for c, f: 200 μm; for d, e: 500 μm. g Photograph showing the five-layer stacked 3D-printed engineered PLA substrates that were designed with protruding hemispheres (D = 1 mm, inset), perforations (1 mm × 1 mm), and stackable pillars and holes and integrated with the ultrathin electronics. Scale bar: 1 cm. Inset shows the SEM image of the protruded hemispheres. Scale bar: 500 μm. h Photograph of the 3D stack assembly of three LISCCPs. Scale bar: 5 cm. i Photograph of a CO₂ incubator filled with multi-stacked LISCCPs (a total of 10) for digital mass cell culture. Scale bar: 5 cm. j Photograph of two CO₂ incubators filled with multi-stacked LISCCPs wirelessly integrated with a single laptop. Scale bar: 10 cm