Fig. 3

Electrochemical cycling performance of Li||Cu and Li||Li cells. a Cycling performance of Li||Cu with 1 mAh cm⁻² at current density of 0.5 mA cm⁻², and b the corresponding rate performance. c The rate performance with different current density at one hour. d The symmetrical tests of Li||Cu where 4 mAh cm⁻² and 3 mAh cm⁻² Li were firstly deposited on Cu surface for MIP and ether-based electrolyte, respectively, and then half Li deposits are conducted. e Voltage-time curves to calculate the average Coulombic efficiency of Li||Cu cells at 0.5 mA cm⁻². f The enlarged view of e from 4 ~ 24 h. g Charge–discharge curves of symmetrical Li||Li cells at 1 mA cm⁻². The morphology of Li anodes after plating in fresh (h), MIP-based (i), PEO-based (j), ether-based (k) electrolyte. Scale bar, 50 μm