Fig. 1: The structure and morphology of thin-film composite membranes and substrate.

a Schematic illustration of the mechanism of interfacial polymerization. b Surface morphology of IP2-0.15. c, d Cross-section morphology of IP2-0.15. e TEM image of the cross-section of IP2-0.15. f AFM images of TFCMs. The image size is 5 × 5 μm.