Fig. 4: The performance of PVSCs fabricated in ambient atmosphere.

a Current density versus voltage (J-V) curves of PVSCs made with perovskite films fabricated using the prenucleation method (black) and the conventional method (red). b IPCE curve (black) and integrated current density (Jsc) curve (red) of the PVSC fabricated by the prenucleation method. c The statistical data of PVSCs fabricated using the perovskite films prepared by the prenucleation method (red) and the conventional method (blue). In the Box-Whisker Plots, the middle line refers to the median (the second quartile), the box goes from the first quartile to the third quartile, the upper/lower whisker refers to the maximum/minimum values of the data points. d The Arrhenius plots of the characteristic transition frequencies of PVSCs fabricated by the prenucleation method (red dots) and conventional method (black squares) and the corresponding calculated trap states energy levels.