Fig. 1: Four case studies, which differ markedly in regulated development (shown in red) and local conditions.

a Brigalow Belt, Australia; b Iron Quadrangle, Brazil; c East Kalimantan, Indonesia; d Cabo Delgado, Mozambique. Regulated development represents new mining areas and related infrastructure in the Brigalow Belt and Cabo Delgado; new mining areas in the Iron Quadrangle; and new mining areas and oil palm plantations in East Kalimantan. See Table 1 for summaries of how local conditions differ among cases.