Fig. 3: Improvement of cognitive functions of 2VO mice after 40 Hz light visual stimulation.

a A schema showing experimental design and timeline. b–d OFT results of four groups of mice. Total distance traveled (b), distance in the center (c), and percentage of time spent in the center (d) were measured and compared amongst the four experimental groups (Sham: n = 7; Sham+LED: n = 8; 2VO: n = 9; 2VO + LED: n = 8 in OFT). e Water maze test (WMM) was also performed on the four experimental groups with days indicated. Escape latency to the platform (e) was measured during the acquisition test at 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12 d after 2VO surgery. Pathlength (f) and locomotion speed (g) of the four groups were also recorded and plotted (Sham: n = 8; Sham+LED: n = 8; 2VO: n = 9; 2VO + LED: n = 10 in the acquisition test of MWM). h The percentage of time spent in the target quadrant during the spatial exploring stage of the MWM probe test (Sham: n = 7; Sham+LED: n = 8; 2VO: n = 7; 2VO + LED: n = 8 in the probe test of MWM). Data were mean ± SEM. Error bars indicated SEM. * indicates a statistical difference between Sham and 2VO group; ^# indicates a statistical difference between 2VO and 2VO + LED group. *, ^#P < 0.05, **, ^##P < 0.01, ***, ^###P < 0.001; Test used in b–d 2ANOVA with Tukey’s post hoc test; e–g RM-2ANOVA with LSD’s post hoc test; h 2ANOVA with LSD’s post hoc test. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.