Fig. 4: DBS improves locomotor performance during overground locomotion, despite stress responses.

a Schematic representation of the testing conditions: bipedal locomotion along a runway with tailored robotic assistance. All the evaluations are performed with EES and 5HT agonists. b Same representations are in Fig. 2 during overground locomotion. c Bar plots reporting the mean values (±s.d) of step height under the different conditions (No stim vs EES, n = 9 rats, p = 0.025; No stim vs MLR, n = 6 rats; EES vs EES + MLR, n = 11 rats, p = 0.0001 using paired, one-tailed t-test). d Quantification of stress responses using the Rat Grimace Scale, wherein grimaces are scored from 0 to 2, as exemplified on three photos of the same rat, from Sotocinal S et al. Mol Pain 2011 (CC-BY license). e Bar plots reporting the mean values of stress responses with and without DBS (p = 0.00086 paired, one-tailed t-test). f Bar plots reporting the mean values of latency and variability (p = 0.0156 and p = 0.0156 paired, one-tailed Wilcoxon signed-rank test) in the latency between the beginning of the trial and the initiation of locomotion with and without DBS (n = 6 rats). *, P < 0.05; **, P < 0.01; ***, P < 0.001. ns, not statistically significant. Bar diagrams, mean ± s.d. g Top: Distribution of c-Fos+ neurons in the midbrain following DBS stimulation. Each color refers to a different rat (n = 4 rats). The plot shows the relationships between the number of c-Fos+ neurons and the distance from the tip of the electrode for each rat.