Fig. 3: Response of pollinators to land-use intensity on cropland, for non-tropical and tropical sites.

Each panel represents a linear or generalised linear mixed-effects model for a given biodiversity metric: A species richness; and B total abundance. We excluded Simpson diversity here since AIC was greater for the main model than the intercept-only model. Colours represent the land-use intensity level, with primary vegetation (minimal use) as the reference factor: black (primary vegetation, minimal use); yellow (cropland, minimal use), orange (cropland, light use), and red (cropland, intense use). Effect sizes were adjusted to a percentage by sampling fixed effects 1000 times based on the variance-covariance matrix, expressing each fixed effect as a percentage of the value in primary vegetation for that geographical zone, and then calculating the median value (shown as points), and 2.5th and 97.5th percentiles (shown as error bars). See Supplementary Table 8 for the number of sites and Supplementary Tables 9 and 10 for the model summaries. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.