Fig. 4: Response of different pollinator groups to land-use intensity in cropland.

Each panel represents a linear or generalised linear mixed-effects model for a given biodiversity metric: A species richness; B total abundance; and C Simpson diversity. Colours represent the land-use intensity level, with primary vegetation (minimal use) as a reference factor: black (primary vegetation, minimal use); yellow (cropland, minimal use), orange (cropland, light use), and red (cropland, intense use). Effect sizes were adjusted to a percentage by sampling fixed effects 1000 times based on the variance-covariance matrix, expressing each fixed effect within each random sample as a percentage of the value in primary vegetation for that taxonomic order, and then calculating the median value (shown as points), and 2.5th and 97.5th percentiles (shown as error bars). See Supplementary Table 11 for the number of sites and Supplementary Tables 12, 13, and 14 for the model summaries. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.