Fig. 4: Charge density distribution with or without irradiation.

a Charge density distribution of pure TiO2. b CuSA-TiO2 under dark condition (Cu is in the dotted square). c CuSA-TiO2 after 100 ps irradiation. d CuSA-TiO2 after 200 ps irradiation. e CuSA-TiO2 after 1 ns irradiation. f CuSA-TiO2 after turning off the irradiation for 100 ps. In the middle panel, (a1–f1) is the magnified Cu atom highlighted by pink square in (a–f). Black and red colored circles indicate more electrons’ accumulation on Cu.