Table 1 Models, ensemble sizes and data used.

National Center for Atmospheric Research

CESM2

1.25 × 1.0 × 32 × 2.25

200

All (only 100 members for EP fluxes)

30 min

Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis

CanESM5

2.8 × 2.8 × 49 × 1

300

All (only 100 members for tas and psl)

6-hourly

Centre Européen de Recherche et de Formation Avancée en Calcul Scientifique

CNRM-CM6-1

1.0 × 1.0 × 91 × 0.01

300

All

daily

US Department of Energy/University of California Irvine

E3SMv1

1.0 × 1.0 × 72 × 0.12

200

All except F_ϕ, F_P for experiment 1.6 and \({\bar{\nu }}^{* }\), \({\bar{w}}^{* }\) for both

daily

Barcelona Super Computing Centre

EC-EARTH3

1.0 × 1.0 × 91 × 0.01

150

All

6-hourly

Alfred Wegener Institute Bremerhaven; Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Hamburg

ECHAM6.3

0.94 × 0.94 × 95 × 0.01

100

All

6-hourly

Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Beijing

FGOALS-f3-L

1.0 × 1.0 × 32 × 2.19

100

All except F_P

daily

Met Office UK

HadGEM3-GC31-MM

0.55 × 0.83 × 85 × 0.005

300

All

20 min

University of Exeter

HadGEM3-GC31-LL

1.25 × 1.875 × 85 × 0.005

195

All

20 min

Institute Pierre Simon Laplace

IPSL-CM6A-LR

1.26 × 1.25 × 79 × 0.01

200

All

daily

University of Tokyo/National Institute for Environmental Studies/Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology

MIROC6

1.4 × 1.4 × 81 × 0.004

100

All

daily

Norwegian Meteorological Institute

NorESM2-LM

1.9 × 2.5 × 32 × 3.6

200

All

30 min

Alfred Wegener Institute

OpenIFS-159

1.125 × 1.125 × 91 × 0.01

299

All

6-hourly

Alfred Wegener Institute

OpenIFS-511

0.352 × 0.352 × 91 × 0.01

98

All

6-hourly

Alfred Wegener Institute

OpenIFS-1279

0.14 × 0.14 × 137 × 0.01

100

All except \({\bar{\nu }}^{* }\), \({\bar{w}}^{* }\), F_p

6-hourly

National Center of Atmospheric Research/University of California Irvine

CESM1-WACCM-SC

1.9 × 2.5 × 66 × 5.9 × 10⁻⁶

300

All except \({\bar{\nu }}^{* }\), \({\bar{w}}^{* }\)

daily