Fig. 4: Shrub expansion over the 21st century was primarily attributed to seed dispersal.

Shrub expansion driven by (a) environmental suitability change from 2014 to 2100, (b) projected fire, and (c) short- and long-distance seed dispersal. The insets show the domain average of shrub expansion from 2014 to 2100; the gray sections show shrub expansion in a scenario where the corresponding factor was turned off and the green sections represent its contribution.