Fig. 5: In vivo validation of the safety and efficacy for hemorrhage control.

a Illustration of a liver volumetric defect non-compressible hemorrhage model on rat without applying pressure. b Blood loss and c time to hemostasis comparison. d Histology images showing the implants after 2-weeks. “Triangle” symbols point to foreign-body type giant cells; “Arrow” symbols point to lymphocytes; “Star” symbols point to eosinophils. e–h Immune responses comparisons. i Illustration of deep incision hemorrhage on rat liver. j, Blood loss and k, time to hemostasis comparisons among different hemostats. l Adhesion strength comparison after hemostasis at ~120 s. m Illustration of a deep incision hemorrhage on pig liver. n Blood loss and o, time to hemostasis comparisons. Values in b, c, e–h, i–l, n, o represent the mean ± s.d. (n = 4 for b, c; n = 6 for SURGIFOAM and 7 for LIMB in e–h; n = 5 for Gauze, Combat Gauze, and LIMB and 6 for NB in j, k; n = 6 for NB and 4 for LIMB in l; n = 7 for Gauze and 6 for LIMB in n, o; independent samples). Statistical significance and P values were determined by two-sided t-test for b, c, e–h, i–l and one-sided t-test for n, o.