Fig. 3: Unassisted PEC hydrogen production.

a Structure of perovskite layer for photoelectrode. b Polarization curves of the perovskite photocathodes with and without Pt catalysts for PEC hydrogen evolution reaction. c Estimated theoretical maximum photocurrent density of bias-free PEC cell from the polarization curves of solar hydrogen produced by Pt-Ti/FM/perovskite photocathode and electron extraction from the reduced PMA by the anode. d Long-term stability of the bias-free PEC cell. e Hydrogen evolution profile of the unassisted PEC system. f IPCE spectrum of the bias-free PEC system before and after 20 h stability test. g Comparison of the STH efficiency of our device and previously reported solar-to-chemical energy conversion devices. Corresponding references can be found in Supplementary Table 1. All error bars are one statistical s.d.