Fig. 1: Probing the charge of the grain-boundary core.

a, b HAADF-STEM image (a) and the corresponding accumulated intensity profile (b) of a grain-boundary (GB) core. The region indicated with red dashed lines is the grain-boundary core with darker contrast. c–e EELS data of Li-K (c), Ti-L2,3 (d), and O-K edges (e). To better illustrate the intensity of O-K with respect to that of Ti-L2,3, the range of energy loss in e is intentionally broadened to show the Ti-L2,3 edge in the same spectrum. ρTi/O(GB core) and ρTi/O(Bulk) represent the Ti-L2,3/O-K integrated intensity ratio of the grain-boundary core and that of the bulk, respectively.