Fig. 4: Comparisons of β-diversity between sample sets based on high-vs-low SD and PS, quantified by weighted UniFrac distance between sample pairs and two-sided FDR-corrected Mann–Whitney U-tests to test for significant differences.

a Comparisons of within- and between-group β-diversity of the GM for mothers with low-SD (n = 35), high-SD (n = 43), low-PS (n = 36) and high-PS (n = 32), all representing biologically independent samples. b Comparisons of within- and between-group GM β-diversity in children with high-SD, low-SD, high-PS and low-PS (n-values same as for the mothers). The number of values used for the tests were the number of unique biologically independent sample pairs in each group (n = 903 low-SD vs low-SD, n = 1505 high-SD vs low-SD, n = 595 high-SD vs high-SD, n = 496 low-PS vs low-PS, n = 1152 high-PS vs low-PS, n = 630 high-PS vs high-PS). On the violin plots, thick black lines indicate the median values, white dashed lines indicate the quartiles of the data range, the width of the shaded areas represent the proportion of data points located at the given weighted UniFrac distance, and the height of the shaded areas spans from the minimum to the maximum value.