Fig. 5: Subdural SCEA implantation and recording in canine models.

a Schematic showing the minimally invasive subdural implantation of the SCEAs in large animal models. b Optical images acquired during subdural implantation of a SCEA into the brain of a beagle dog before and after withdrawal of the nitinol actuator. The dura slit is marked by the white dotted line. The craniotomy caused some bleeding in the skull, leading to the formation of several hemorrhagic spots on the surface of the dura (white arrows), while the blood vessels underneath the dura displayed a much darker red colour (yellow arrow). The vessels under the dura remained intact, and no bleeding was observed during the SCEA insertion, deployment or shape actuator withdrawal processes. Scale bar, 5 mm. c Signals recorded from a beagle dog during the anaesthesia and emergence periods (6 min after discontinuing the administration of isoflurane). The left schematic shows the location of the SCEA. QP ectolateralis posterior; SSM suprasylvian gyrus, EM ectosylvian gyrus. d The averaged power spectrum during the anaesthesia and emergence periods. e Spectrograms of signals recorded by a representative channel in the anaesthesia and emergence periods. f Spatial power spectral density (PSD) patterns in the beta and gamma 1 band during the anaesthesia and emergence periods, as well as the PSD difference between these two states. g Channel-to-channel coherence map of different bands during the anaesthesia and emergence periods. Note that the colour bar scale is equalized across the matrices for ease of comparison. h Histograms showing the distributions of the coherence values in the anaesthesia and emergence states. The rhombuses at the bottom indicate the medians of the distributions. i Statistical significance of the coherence difference between the anaesthesia and emergence states. A significant increase is indicated by red pixels, and a significant decrease is indicated by blue pixels. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001, two-sided Wilcoxon signed-rank test. j Histograms showing the distribution of the significant difference in (i). Source data are provided as a Source Data file.