Fig. 4: Surface and pore morphology of VaCNT membranes.

A, B Top and bottom surface of the VaCNT membrane (the insets resolve the membrane ‘pores’ on both surfaces). C View of the top surface at a tilt angle of 54° showing the roughness of this surface. D, E, F Increasing zooms of the VaCNT membrane cross-section at a tilt angle of 54°. The possible flow paths highlighted in E and F gives an estimate of the pore tortuosity.