Table 3 Detection accuracy and repeatability (Conc.mean/ σconc./ Err.) of the crown ether decorated SiP Pb2+ sensor in environmental-related scenarios (tap, lake, sea water), using the respective samples, where the Pb2+ concentrations are verified by ICP-MS

From: Crown ether decorated silicon photonics for safeguarding against lead poisoning

Field samples

Inferred Conc.mean/ σconc. (n = 6)/ Err.

Tap water, undoped; 2 ppb of Pb2+, measured by ICP-MS

2.40 ppb/ 0.3 ppb/20.0%

Lake water, undoped; 5 ppb of Pb2+, measured by ICP-MS

4.77 ppb/ 0.6 ppb/4.6%

Sea water, undoped; 8 ppb of Pb2+; measured by ICP-MS

8.16 ppb/ 0.4 ppb/2.0%

Doped tap water, where Pb2+ concentration is synthetically increased by 15 ppb to 17 ppb, measured by ICP-MS

16.7 ppb/ 0.5 ppb/1.8%

Doped lake water, where Pb2+ concentration is synthetically increased by 15 ppb to 20 ppb, measured by ICP-MS

19.5 ppb/ 0.7 ppb/2.5%

Doped sea water, where Pb2+ concentration is synthetically increased by 15 ppb to 23 ppb, measured by ICP-MS

22.8 ppb/ 0.7 ppb/0.9%

  1. Conc.mean refers to mean sensor inferred concentrations. σconc. refers to the standard deviation of the sensor-inferred concentrations. Err. refers to the variation in Conc.mean from the reference concentrations. The measured pH of the tap, lake and sea water are 7.26, 7.91 and 7.79, respectively.
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