Fig. 3: Electrochemical and physiochemical characterisation at the electrode∣electrolyte interface.

A Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy measurements and data fit of self-symmetric cells over 16 h at 30 ∘C, 5 MPa stack pressure. Inset: equivalent circuit used to fit the raw EIS data. EIS data and fits are available in the repository56. B Interfacial resistance against time. Error bars show standard error across multiple samples. C Bar chart showing magnesium oxide fraction of total oxide at a series of sputtering depths. D–F Ex situ XPS measurements and analysis of the passivation layers on alloy samples. Core-level XPS spectra for each alloy composition for (D) O 1s, (E) Mg 2s, (F) Li 1s and Mg 2p.