Fig. 5: Focus on prediction error: differentiating Heschl’s gyrus from hippocampus and cingulate gyrus.

This figure focuses on prediction error responses in three novel (N) experimental conditions (novel T1 [NT1], novel T2 [NT2], novel T3 [NT3]) within six selected automated anatomical labelling (AAL) regions of interest (ROIs): left Heschl’s gyrus (LHG), right Heschl’s gyrus (RHG), left hippocampus (LHP), right hippocampus (RHP), anterior cingulate gyrus (ACC), and medial cingulate gyrus (MC). The figure shows the time series averaged over participants (n = 83). Shaded areas indicate standard errors. Musical tone sketches indicate the onset of the sounds forming the sequences. Brain templates illustrate the spatial extent of the selected ROIs. For each ROI, the circles highlight the peak responses indexing the prediction error to each of the varied tones in the sequences (occurring approximately at 150 ms after tone onset for LHG and RHG, and at 250 ms for LHP, RHP, ACC, MC. To be noted, LHP, RHP and ACC exhibit negative peaks, while MC displays positive peaks). Beneath each waveform, violin plots display the distribution of the amplitude of the peaks highlighted by the circles (each dot represents a participant). The different amplitude of these peaks was statistically tested using one-sided analyses of variance (ANOVAs), independently for each ROI. The stars indicate the significant ANOVAs after false discovery rate (FDR) correction for multiple comparisons (FDR-adjusted p-values: *<0.05; **<0.01; ***<0.001; n.s. not significant). Source data are provided as a Source Data file.