Table 1 Contextual details of studies included in the systematic review and meta-analysis

From: Ambient air pollution and urological cancer risk: A systematic review and meta-analysis of epidemiological evidence

Study

Outcome

Exposure

Study (year) [citation]

Location

Design

Time Period

Number of Participants

Male (%)

Age (average (SD) or range, years)

UCa Type

Outcome

Number of Outcomes

Air Pollutants

Concentration (Average (SD) or range, μg/m3)

Assessment method

For systematic review and meta-analysis

Felici (2024)47

UK

Case-control

2006~

Cases: 53,270

Controls: 302,645

Cases: 46.6

Controls: 46.8

Cases: 63.76

Controls: 55.63

PCa

BCa

KCa

Incidence

PCa: 12,838

BCa: 1516

KCa: 1700

PM2.5

NO2

NOX

PM10

NA

LUR

Fan (2023)29

China/Jiangsu

Ecological

2015–2020

PCa: 43,000,000

KCa/BCa: 84,700,000

50.8

NA

PCa

BCa

KCa

Mortality

PCa: 13,618

BCa:11,392

KCa: 5,820

PM2.5

60.3 (7.0)

Hybrid machine-learning prediction models &

Yu (2022) (2)27

Brazil

Ecological

2010–2016

KCa/BCa: 199,997,499

PCa/TCa:65,496,608

48

NA

PCa

BCa

KCa

TCa

Mortality

PCa: 96,501

BCa:25,019

KCa: 21,018

TCa: 2054

Wildfire PM2.5

2.38 (1.62)

CTM

Hvidtfeldt (2022)45

Europe (Denmark, Sweden, Netherland, France, Austria)

Cohort

1985–2015

302,493

0-50 *

48.2 (13.4)

KCa

Incidence

847

PM2.5

NO2

O3

BC

PM2.5: 15.3 (8.6–19.2)

NO2: 24.1 (12.8–39.2)

O3: 87.0 (70.3–97.4)

BC: 0.88 (0.385–1.155) #

LUR

Yu (2022)28

Brazil

Ecological

2010–2018

KCa/BCa: 147,514,042

NA

NA

PCa

BCa

KCa

TCa

Mortality

PCa: 127,499

BCa:33,787

KCa: 28,625

TCa: 2802

PM2.5

7.63 (3.32)

CTM

Youogo (2022)44

Canada

Case-control

1975–1997

2844

100

cases: 66.7 (5.6)

controls: 65.5 (6.4)

PCa

Incidence

1420

PM2.5

NO2

PM2.5: 11.9 (3.0)

NO2: 29.14 (16.72)

Satellite

Taj (2022)41

Denmark

Case-control

1989–2014

25,387

100

≤40 (65%) ^

TCa

Incidence

6390

PM2.5

BC

NO2

NO3

O3

SO2

SO4

PM2.5: 18.2

BC: 0.85

NO2: 21.75

NO3: 3.71

O3: 58.99

SO2: 13.63

SO4: 3.11

DEHM/UBM/AirGIS

Shin (2022)30

South Korea

Cohort

2005–2015

PCa: 47,159

BCa: 87,608

KCa: 87,608

53.8

46.58 (11.01)

PCa

BCa

KCa

Mortality

PCa: 36

BCa: 27

KCa: 38

PM2.5

PM10

NA

Kriging

Huang (2022)31

Taiwan

Cohort

2000–2015

189,549

100

39.5 (12.8)

PCa

Incidence

732

PM2.5

20.81

Satellite

Chen (2022)32

Europe (Sweden, Denmark, Netherland, France, Austria)

Cohort

1985–2015

302,493

0–50 *

41.7–72.5

BCa

Incidence

967

PM2.5

NO2

BC

O3

PM2.5: 14.94

NO2: 24.86

BC: 1.672

O3: 85.44

LUR

Coleman (2020)34

USA

Cohort

1987–2014

PCa: 282,815

BCa: 635,539

KCa: 635,539

44.5

45.3

PCa

BCa

KCa

Mortality

PCa: 1215

BCa:589

KCa: 603

PM2.5

10.7 (2.4)

LUR

Coleman (2020) (2)46

USA

Ecological

1992–2016

35.4 million Δ

49.7

NA

PCa

BCa

KCa

Incidence

PCa: 1,151,454

BCa: 346,681

KCa: 254,706

PM2.5

11.5 (2.6)

LUR

Turner (2019)43

Spain

Case-control

1998–2001

1911

Cases: 88

Controls: 87

cases: 65.8 (9.7)

controls: 64.7 (9.8)

BCa

Incidence

938

PM2.5

NO2

PM2.5: 15.8 (3.89)

NO2: 28.6 (10.02)

LUR

Shekarrizfard (2018)40

Canada/Montreal

Case-control

2005–2009

1722

100

Cases: 65.0 (7.0)

PCa

Incidence

803

NO2

28.2

LUR

Gandini (2018)36

Italy

Cohort

1999–2008

74,989

47.3

35–65 (70.2%)

BCa

KCa

Incidence

BCa: 501

KCa: 196

PM2.5

NO2

10-30

(NO2: 76.3%,

PM2.5: 79.1%)

CTM

Pedersen (2018)37

Europe (Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Netherlands, England, Austria, Italy, Spain)

Cohort

1985– ~ 2010

NO2 /NOX: 303,431

Others: 263,634

21-55 *

48 (43–57) *

BCa

Incidence

NO2/NOX: 943

Others: 827

PM2.5

BC

NO2

NOX

PM10

PM2.5-10

PM2.5: 7.1-30.1

BC: 0.66–3.41

NO2: 5.2–53.2

NOX: 8.7–96.4

PM10: 13.5-46.4

PM2.5-10: 4.0–16.7 *

LUR

Datzmann (2018)35

German/Saxony

Cohort

2007–2014

1,918,449

46.8

49.33 (25.33)

PCa

Incidence

9611

PM10

NO2

PM2.5: 20.89

NO2: 20.44

LUR

Cohen (2018)33

Israel

Cohort

2004–2015

BCa: 9,816

PCa:7,509

44.7

68.2 (12.1)

BCa,

PCa

Incidence

BCa: 74

PCa:122

NOX

37.24

LUR

Turner (2017)42

USA

Cohort

1982–2004

PCa: 278,455

BCa: 623,048

KCa: 623,048

 

40-69 (85%)

PCa

BCa

KCa

Mortality

PCa: 1068

BCa:1324

KCa: 927

PM2.5

NO2

O3

PM2.5: 12.6 (2.8)

NO2: 21.62 (9.59)

O3: 76.4 (8.0)

hybrid LUR and BME

Raaschou-Nielsen (2017)39

Europe (Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Netherlands, England, Austria, Italy, Spain)

Cohort

1985- ~ 2010

NO2 /NOX: 289,002

Others: 249,521

21-55 *

48 (43-57) *

KCa

Incidence

NO2 /NOX: 697

Others: 603

PM2.5

BC

NO2

NOX

PM10

PM2.5-10

PM2.5: 7.1–30.1

BC: 0.66–3.41

NO2: 5.2–53.2

NOX: 8.7–96.4

PM10: 13.5-46.4

PM2.5-10: 4.0–16.5 *

LUR

Raaschou-Nielsen (2011)38

Denmark

Cohort

1993–2006

PCa: 25,803

BCa: 53,234

KCa: 46,259

47.6

56.7

PCa

BCa

KCa

Incidence

PCa: 673

BCa:221

KCa: 95

NOX

28.4

DEHM/UBM/AirGIS

For systematic review only

Lim (2023)62

Australia

Cohort

1996–2018

11,627

100

72.1 (4.4)

BCa

Incidence

224

PM2.5

BC

NO2

PM2.5: 5.06 (1.68)

BC: 1.07 (0.30)

NO2: 13.42 (4.09)

LUR

Park (2023)61

Korea

Cohort

2005–2018

231,997

77.3

≥65 (49.5%)

PCa

KCa

UTCa

UCa

Incidence

PCa: 28,440

KCa: 9,736

UTCa: 12,501

UCa: 50,677

PM10

56.24

Monitoring stations

Dummer (2023)63

Canada

Case-control

2005–2011

1022

NA

>20

UCa

Incidence

219

NO2

SO2

PM1.0

PM2.5

NO2: 10.90 (3.95)

SO2:0.79 (0.79)

PM1.0: 2.7 (0.2)

PM2.5: 3.1 (0.3)

Monitoring stations/LUR

Wei (2023)60

USA

Cohort

2000–2016

2,161,156

100

75–84 (88.8%)

PCa

Incidence

80,615

NO2

PM2.5

NO2: 32.52 (0-239.89)

PM2.5:9.8 (0–30.9)

GWR†

Wang (2019)55

China

Ecological

2000–2011

44.4 million

100

NA

PCa

Incidence & Mortality

NA

PM2.5

36–60 (91%) <35 (9%)

Satellite

Collarile (2017) @53

Italy

Ecological

1995–2009

NA

NA

NA

BCa

Incidence

650

PM10

NO2

SO2

PM10: 19.6–107.1

NO2: 10.8–25.5

SO2: 27.5–85.0

SPRAY v3

Weichenthal (2017)57

Canada/Montreal

Case-control

2005–2009

2486

100

NA

PCa

Incidence

1240

ultrafine particles

24,263/m3

LUR

Cohen (2017) §52

Israel

Cohort

1992–2013

1393

81

54 (8)

UCa

Incidence & Mortality

Incidence:262

Mortality:105 $

NOx

45.9 (17.2, 160.7)

LUR

Yeh (2017)51

Taiwan

Ecological

2000–2012

NA

NA

NA

BCa

Mortality

NA

PM2.5

NA

Kriging

Wong (2016)49

Hong Kong

Cohort

1998–2001

66,820

35

≥65

UCa

Mortality

155

PM2.5

PM2.5: 33.7 (3.2)

Satellite

Ancona (2015) @48

Italy/Rome

Cohort

2001–2010

85,559

48.4

5–106

KCa

BCa

Incidence & Mortality

KCa: 164 (I),

54 (M)

BCa: 477 (I),

73 (M)

SOx

PM10

SOx:1.67

PM10: 2*10−5

SPRAY v5

Shekarrizfard (2015)56

Canada/Montreal

Case-control

2005–2008

1722

100

Cases: 65.0 (7.0)

PCa

Incidence

803

NO2

NOx

NO2: 14.87

NOX: 788.84 g

LUR

Parent (2013)58

Canada/Montreal

Case-control

2005–2008

1772

100

Cases: 65.0 (7.0)

PCa

Incidence

803

NO2

controls: 22.20 (5.08)

cases: 22.75 (5.25)

LUR

AI-Ahmadi (2013)50

Saudi Arabia

Ecological

1998–2004

NA

NA

NA

BCa

PCa

Incidence

NA

NO2

NA

Satellite

Yanagi (2012)59

Brazil

Ecological

1997–2005

NA

NA

NA

BCa

Incidence & Mortality

NA

PM10

NA

Monitoring stations

Liu (2009)54

Taiwan

Case-control

1995–2005

1360

Cases/controls: 67.8

50–69

BCa

Mortality

680

PM10

NO2

O3

CO

SO2

PM10: ≤90.29

NO2: ≤84.32

O3: ≤71.4

CO: ≤3.42

SO2: ≤46.82

Monitoring stations

  1. &This model integrates ground measurement data, satellite remote sensing products, and atmospheric reanalysis data.
  2. *Range across cohorts.
  3. #median (5-95% percentile).
  4. ^65% of participants in the study were younger than 40 years old.
  5. ΔBased on the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER)website (https://seer.cancer.gov/registries/data.html), the SEER 12 data covers roughly 12.2% of the US population. In 2016, the US population was 323.1 million, and in 1992, the US population was 256.9 million. Here, the average population between 1992-2016 is applied.
  6. Included in the systematic review, but did not provide association estimates that could be included in the meta-analysis (i.e., spatial analysis, combined estimates for various cancer types with no specific estimates by UCa type, air pollution from special pollution sources).
  7. @The environmental air pollutants included the source of nearby incinerators or coal-fired and oil-thermal power plants.
  8. §The study population focused on survivors of myocardial infarction.
  9. $These are numbers of all cancer types.
  10. †Geographically weighted regressions that ensembled predictions from random forests, gradient boosting, and neural network
  11. BCa bladder cancer; BME Bayesian maximum entropy interpolation model, CTM chemical transport model, DEHM Danish Eulerian Hemispheric Model, KCa kidney cancer, LUR land use regression, NA not available, PCa prostate cancer, SD standard deviation, TCa testicular cancer, UTCa urothelial cancer, UCa urological cancer, UBM Urban Background Model, GWR geographically weighted regression.
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