Fig. 1: Study design.

a Infographic representation of the study design. (Created with BioRender.com released under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 4.0 International license). b Details of spaceflight missions and simulations included in the project. R return, L launch, PE post-exposure, P plasma, U urine, K kidney; F faecal. a, b N numbers correspond to the number of experimental individuals that were exposed to spaceflight or a simulated spaceflight condition, and to control condition individuals were omitted from the presented counts to ensure paired and unpaired experiments were comparable.